Eine effektive Förderung des Sozialverhaltens autistischer Kinder erfordert ein tiefgehendes Verständnis der Ursachen maladaptiver Reaktionen und die Bereitstellung eines leicht verfügbaren Förderangebots. Hier haben digitale Angebote ein großes Potential. Ebenso wie bei der Ursachenforschung mangelt es jedoch an Forschungsansätzen, welche eine Vielzahl an kognitiven und emotionalen Prozessen in die digitale Förderung integrieren. Dementsprechend untersuchte die Dissertation zunächst das Zusammenspiel verschiedener Ursachen aggressives Sozialverhaltens anhand eines etablierten Modells der sozial-kognitiven Informationsverarbeitung. Durch die Integration verschiedener Facetten der Empathie und deren zugrundeliegende Kompetenzen in ein digitales Förderangebot sollte im zweiten Schritt eine Verbesserung des Sozialverhaltens autistischer Grundschüler:innen erreicht werden. Es zeigte sich, dass Emotionsdysregulation verschiedene Formen aggressiven Sozialverhaltens und damit assoziierte feindselige Attributionen verstärkt. Letztere stand vor allem mit verbalen und verdeckten Aggressionsformen sowie mit guten Emotionserkennungsfertigkeiten im Zusammenhang. Eine Verbesserung des Sozialverhaltens und der Emotionsregulation konnte mittelfristig durch das sechswöchige, eltern-begleitete eLearningprogramm „Zirkus Empathico“ erreicht werden. Die multizentrische, randomisiert kontrollierte Studie ergab zudem kurzfristige und moderate Interventionseffekte für Empathie und Emotionserkennung als primäre Endpunkte. Insgesamt unterstreicht die Dissertation die Validität etablierter Modelle der sozialen Informationsverarbeitung sowie die Relevanz, diese zukünftigen Forschungs- und Interventionsansätzen zugrunde zu legen. Durch die Integration verschiedener sozio-emotionaler Kompetenzen scheint die digitale Intervention Zirkus Empathico prosoziales Verhalten autistischer Kinder auf effektive und praktikable Weise zu fördern. / Effective training of autistic children`s social behavior requires an in-depth understanding of the causes of maladaptive responses and the provision of easily accessible support services. In this context, digital interventions have great potential. However, there is a lack of research approaches that integrate a variety of cognitive and emotional processes into both, explanation and digital support. The present dissertation first examined the interplay of different causes of aggressive social behavior by applying an established model of social-cognitive information processing to a sample of autistic elementary school students. Second, by integrating different facets of empathy and their underlying competencies into a digital program, the social behavior of autistic elementary school children should be improved. First, it was shown that emotion dysregulation strengthens various forms of aggressive social behavior and associated hostile attribution biases. The latter was mainly related to verbal and covert forms of aggression and good emotion recognition skills. Second, the parent-assisted eLearning program "Zirkus Empathico" led to a medium-term improvement in social behavior and emotion regulation after a six-week training. In addition, the multicenter randomized controlled trial showed moderate intervention effects on empathy and emotion recognition as primary outcomes, which were no longer detectable three months later. Overall, the dissertation highlights the validity of established models of social information processing and the relevance of using them as a foundation for future research and intervention. By integrating various socio-emotional competencies, the digital intervention Zirkus Empathico seems to strengthen autistic children’s prosocial behavior effectively and feasibly.

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[pt] Crenças disfuncionais sobre emoções negativas estão associadas à presença de sintomas como ansiedade, depressão, fadiga, medo de avaliação negativa, menor busca por apoio social e supressão emocional. A supressão é uma estratégia de regulação das emoções contraproducente, relacionada com dificuldades como menores níveis de entendimento emocional e aumento dos estados afetivos indesejados. Estas crenças estão relacionadas, ainda, com diferentes quadros clínicos, e podem se originar a partir de fatores ambientais, que exercem um papel central no aparecimento de sintomas referentes à presença das crenças. Elas atuam, também, como fator de risco e vulnerabilidade para certos grupos, já que podem levar a maiores taxas desses sintomas, com os quais parece haver uma relação bidirecional, conduzindo a desregulação emocional e estresse. O primeiro estudo endereçou participantes expostos a estes estressores ambientais, policiais militares, que constituem grupo de risco. Para verificação de dados de saúde mental nessa população, eles foram avaliados com relação às crenças sobre emoções, ansiedade, depressão, fadiga e medo de avaliação negativa. Diferenças significativas foram encontradas entre o grupo policial e o controle, com o grupo de policiais apresentando índices elevados de sintomas de fadiga, depressão e ansiedade com relação aos escores totais das escalas. Também, altas taxas de prevalência foram encontradas para a população policial para esses mesmos sintomas, que dobraram em comparação aos controles, o que aponta para a gravidade clínica destes sintomas. Acreditamos ser a primeira vez que dados de prevalência são relatados em forças policias, constituindo uma importante contribuição do presente estudo. A partir desses resultados, é possível sugerir programas para policiais que enderecem a saúde mental, em especial intervenções que contemplem a regulação das emoções, visando gerenciamento dos sintomas mais graves. O segundo estudo buscou por meio da validação brasileira do Questionário de Regulação Emocional para a população adulta, investigar a relação entre estratégias de regulação emocional, crenças sobre emoções e alexitimia, fatores emocionais que podem ter uma forte associação. A supressão emocional se apresentou uma estratégia pouco adaptativa pela associação com maiores níveis de crenças sobre emoções e alexitimia, merecendo maior atenção nos tratamentos pelos resultados encontrados no presente estudo, que corroboram com a literatura, e ainda, pela intensidade de sua presença em diferentes grupos clínicos. Além disso, acreditamos ser a primeira vez que é observada a relação entre os contructos de crenças disfuncionais sobre emoções negativas e alexitimia, e que as propriedades psicométricas do instrumento são investigadas na população adulta, o que representa a relevância do segundo estudo. Assim, de maneira geral, os resultados apontam para uma correlação entre as variáveis clínicas citadas, com uma influência mais sutil que o esperado das crenças no primeiro estudo, mas com associações em ambos que apontam para a presença das crenças como disfuncionais pela vinculação com maiores níveis de depressão, medo de avaliação negativa, supressão emocional e alexitimia. / [en] Dysfunctional beliefs about negative emotions are associated with symptoms such as anxiety, depression, fatigue, fear of negative evaluation, less search for social support and emotional suppression. Emotional suppression is a counterproductive emotion regulation strategy related to difficulties such as lower levels of understanding and greater undesirable emotional states. Unhelpful beliefs are also related to different clinical conditions, and may also come from environmental factors. These beliefs act as a risk factor and vulnerability for certain groups, leading to higher rates of symptoms, emotional dysregulation and stress. The first study addressed participants exposed to such environmental stressors, namely military policemen. To investigate mental health data in this population, participants were assessed for beliefs about emotions, anxiety, depression, fatigue and fear of negative assessment. Results indicates high scores in the scales for fatigue, depression and anxiety, with high prevalence rates of these same symptoms in the at-risk group. To the best of out knowlwdge, this is the first time that fatigue prevalence rates are described in the literature. Considering what has been exposed so far, it is possible to suggest programs for policemen that address mental health, especially interventions that contemplate emotion regulation. The second study sought to validate the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for the Brazilian adult population, investigating the relationship between emotion regulation strategies, beliefs about emotions and alexithymia. The results point to a correlation between the mentioned clinical variables, albeit with a more subtle influence than expected in the first study. Furthermore, suppression is a strategy that deserves greater attention due to the high association with variables present in different clinical groups and with emotional difficulties, such as alexithymia and high levels of unhelpful beliefs. Emotional suppression was shown to be a non adaptative emotion regulation strategy, presenting correlations with high levels of beliefs about emotions and alexithymia. Considering the present results as well as the existing literature, emotional suppression should be adressed in future clinical trials. In addition, this is the first time that the relation between beliefs about emotions and alexithymia is observed and that the psychometic properties of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire are investigated in adult population. Thus, in general, results points to a correlation between the clinical variables cited above, with a more subtle influence of beliefs about emotions in the first study, but in both with associations that point to the dysfunctional nature of these beliefs, by presenting associations with high levels of depression, fear of negative evaluation, emotional suppression and alexithymia.

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本論文主要在探討拖延行為及其相關因素，共分成以下三個研究： 研究一的目的是編製一份拖延行為量表及拖延時感受量表。在拖延行為量表方面，區分為「學業拖延量表」及「一般拖延量表」兩種。 研究二的目的是探討時間觀、成就目標與拖延行為的關係。其中，在時間觀部分，包含有「未來」、「現在快樂主義」、「現在宿命論」、「過去－正向」、「過去－負向」五種時間觀取向；而「成就目標」則分成「趨向精熟」、「趨向表現」、「逃避精熟」、「逃避表現」四種目標導向。除此之外，本研究亦針對不同性質任務的拖延情形及性別、年級、是否有兼職或打工、創新行為與拖延行為、拖延時感受的關係，進行探討。 研究三的目的是探討拖延行為、情緒調節與拖延時感受的關係。其中，情緒調節部份分成「重新評估」及「壓抑」兩種調節方式。 經由統計分析的結果，各研究有以下的發現： 研究一以大學生為對象，有效樣本277人，扣除性別漏填3人，男有88人，女有186人。經由主成份分析結果，拖延行為量表中的「學業拖延量表」、「一般拖延量表」均為單一因素的量表，並且該兩種量表在內部一致性的信度分析方面，Cronbach α值分別為.70（學業拖延量表）、.90（一般拖延量表），在效標關聯效度方面，也均與「自我概念」、「學業成績表現」呈顯著負相關（r=-.21&#12316;-.33，p<.001）。而「拖延時感受量表」經因素分析結果共得「自圓其說」、「自責後悔」、「僥倖心理」、「自我調適」、「灰心逃避」五個因素，這五個因素在內部一致性的信度分析方面，除了「自我調適」分量表（3題）的Cronbach α值為.56外，其他四個因素的α值則介於.74&#12316;.82之間。 研究二也是以大學生為對象，有效樣本541人，扣除性別漏填1人，男有193人，女有347人。利用研究一所編製的量表進行施測，結果發現無論是在學業拖延或是一般拖延上，約有50﹪以上的人認為自己的拖延情形在中間程度（五點量表，中數為3）以上；而在拖延時感受部分，人在拖延時最常出現的感受是「自責後悔」（M=3.60，SD=.70）與「自我調適」（M=3.52，SD=.65）。在不同性質任務的拖延程度上，「自己不想做但又必須做的事情」最會拖延（M=2.99，SD=.84），「自己想做也喜歡做的事情」最不會拖延（M=1.95，SD=.70）。而「性別」、「是否有兼職或打工」在拖延程度上並無顯著的差異存在；但是，在拖延時的感受部分，男生在拖延時比女生較常感到「自圓其說」，女生則比男生在拖延時較常感到「自責後悔」；「沒有兼職或打工」的人比「有兼職或打工」者在拖延時較常感到「自圓其說」。至於，拖延行為與創新行為的關係，拖延程度越高的人創新行為的表現越低；而拖延時較少感到「自我調適」，或較常感到「灰心逃避」的人，其創新行為表現也較低。 在時間觀、成就目標與拖延行為關係方面，除了時間觀中的「未來」時間觀與拖延行為呈顯著負相關（r=-41、-.47，p<.001）之外、「現在快樂主義」與「過去－負向」兩種時間觀則均與拖延行為呈正相關（r=.08&#12316;.20，p<.05），亦即時間觀越是「現在快樂主義」、「過去－負向」，越不是「未來」取向者，其拖延的情形越高。至於，成就目標與拖延行為的關係，無論是「趨向精熟」、「趨向表現」、「逃避精熟」還是「逃避表現」的目標導向，則或多或少均與拖延行為呈負相關（r=-.13&#12316;.22，p<.01）；但是，成就目標對拖延行為的影響，則因為時間觀的作用達顯著時而式微。 研究三則以研究一所編製的量表對研究二的樣本進行分析，主要想要了解情緒調節是否能作為拖延行為與拖延時感受的調節變項。應用階層迴歸分析的結果發現，基本上情緒調節與拖延行為對拖延時感受的影響並無顯著的交互作用存在。但是，若從情緒調節、拖延行為對拖延時感受的主要效果來看，兩者則分別對拖延時感受具有不同顯著的影響。以拖延行為對拖延時感受的影響來看，拖延程度越高的人在拖延時越常感到「僥倖心理」、「灰心逃避」、「自圓其說」。而以情緒調節對拖延時感受的影響來看，情緒調節越是以「重新評估」方式來調節的人，在拖延時則越常感到「自責後悔」、「自我調適」，越不會感到「自圓其說」、「灰心逃避」；情緒調節若越是以「壓抑」方式來調節的人，在拖延時則越常感到「自圓其說」。除此之外，本研究也發現，「重新評估」的情緒調節方式與學業拖延呈正相關（r=.09，p<.05），但是相關不大；而且若從時間觀與情緒調節的關係來看，「重新評估」情緒調節方式與「未來」、「現在快樂主義」時間觀呈正相關（r=.21&#12316;.27，p<.001），與「過去－負向」時間觀呈負相關（-.15，p<.001）。可見，這樣的結果與研究二中時間觀與拖延行為的關係加以對照來看，「重新評估」可能不是影響一個人是否經常學業拖延的直接原因，真正影響的是他站在怎樣的時間觀取向下來進行「重新評估」的情緒調節。 綜合三個研究結果，我們獲得以下幾個主要結論：（一）本論文所編製的學業拖延量表、一般拖延量表及拖延時感受量表，無論是在信、效度上均是可以接受的，可作為測量個體拖延程度與輔導其拖延問題的參考工具。（二）拖延已是大學校園內普遍的一種行為，而這種行為的程度並不因「性別」或「是否有兼職或打工」而有所不同；真正影響一個人是否經常拖延的原因主要與個體的時間觀取向有關，當一個人的時間觀越是傾向於「未來」時間觀，越不傾向於「現在快樂主義」、「過去－負向」的人，則越少拖延。（三）當任務是自己想做也喜歡做時，大學生比較不會拖延；相反地，當任務是自己不想做但又必須做時，大學生則比較會拖延。（四）雖然性別、是否兼職或打工在拖延行為程度上並無顯著的差異；但是，在拖延時感受的比較上，男生在拖延時比女生較常感到「自圓其說」，女生則比男生較常感到「自責後悔」，而沒有兼職或打工的學生則比有兼職或打工的學生在拖延時較常感到「自圓其說」。（五）拖延程度越高的人，在拖延時越常感到「僥倖心理」、「灰心逃避」、「自圓其說」。（六）情緒調節越是傾向以「重新評估」方式來調節的人，在拖延時越常感到「自責後悔」、「自我調適」，越少感到「自圓其說」、「灰心逃避」；而情緒調節越是以「壓抑」方式來調節的人，在拖延時則越常感到「自圓其說」。（七）拖延行為程度越高的人，其創新行為的表現也越低。 最後，本論文根據以上的研究發現，進行綜合討論與結論，並據以對學校、輔導及未來研究提出相關的綜合建議。 關鍵字：拖延、學業拖延、一般拖延、拖延時感受、創新行為、時間觀、成就目標、情緒調節。 / This dissertation mainly explores procrastination through three studies. Study 1’s objectives are to develop inventories about procrastination. The measurement instruments include academic procrastination, general procrastination , feelings when procrastinating. Study 2’s objectives are to explore relationships among time perspective（TP）, achievement goals and procrastination. The five factors of TP include future, present-hedonistic, present-fatalistic, past-positive and past-negative orientations（Zimbardo ＆ Boyd, 1999）. The achievement goal variable includes a 4-dimensional goal orientation: approach-mastery, approach-performance, avoidance-mastery and avoidance-performance（Elliot ＆ McGregor, 2001）. Furthermore, this study also investigates: a）procrastination of different tasks, b）the difference of procrastination behaviors and feelings when procrastinating based on different variables such as sex, grades, whether or not the students have part-time work, and c）relationship between procrastination and innovative behaviors（Scott ＆ Bruce, 1994）. Study 3’s objectives are to determine the relationships among procrastination, emotion regulation and feelings when procrastinating. The two forms of emotion regulation include reappraisal and suppression（Gross ＆ John, 2003）. The following are some findings based on the three studies: In study 1, the participants were 277 college students（88 males, and 186 females）.The data was analyzed using Principle Component Analysis. Results yielded the following: 1）Both academic procrastination and general procrastination were unidimensional scales. The former’s reliability was Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of .70 and the latter’s was .90. Two scales were related negatively to academic performance and self-concept（r=-.21&#12316;-.33, p<.001）. 2）Items of feelings when procrastinating were divided into five factors. These five factors were labeled as excuse-making（4 items, α=.82）, self-blame and regret（4 items, α=.74）, wishful thinking（3 items, α=.78）, self-adaptation（3 items, α=.56）, and dejection and avoidance（2 items, α=.78）. In study 2, the subjects were 541 college students（193 males, and 347 females）.All participants were measured by inventories developed in study 1. Results yielded the following: 1）More than 50﹪of students reported that their procrastination was higher than middle level. 2）People procrastinated more with tasks that they have to do but do not want to do; and less with tasks that they want to do and like to do. 3）No significant relationship was found between procrastination and sex, or whether or not the students have part-time work. However, males were more inclined to excuse themselves than females when they were procrastinating. In contrast, females were more inclined to blame themselves and feel regretful than males when they were procrastinating. Non-part-time workers were more inclined to excuse themselves than part-time workers when they were procrastinating. 4）People with higher procrastination levels tended to have lower scores of innovative behavior. 5）People with higher scores of future orientation, lower present-hedonistic TP and past-negative TP tended to have lower procrastination levels. In study 3, study 2’s participants were also part of study 3. The study primarily aimed to understand how “emotion regulation” functions as a moderator of the relation between procrastination level and feelings when procrastinating. Data was analyzed using Hierarchical Multiple Regression. Basically, we did not find the interaction between procrastination level and emotion regulation to explain variance of feelings when procrastinating. However, when examining the effects of procrastination level and emotion regulation individually, both variables significantly affected variance of feelings when procrastinating. When the analyzing between procrastination level and feelings when procrastinating, people with higher procrastination levels tended to have higher scores of wishful thinking, dejection and avoidance, and excuse-making when they were procrastinating. This indicated that the relationship between emotion regulation and feelings when procrastinating, people with higher reappraisal scores tended to have higher scores of self-blame and regret, higher scores of self-adaptation, lower scores of excuse-making, and lower scores of dejection and avoidance. Further, people with higher suppression scores tended to have higher scores of excuse-making. In addition, this study also found that emotion regulation by reappraisal was marginally related to academic procrastination（r=.09,p<.05）; but from the relationship between TP and emotion regulation, we found that reappraisal was related positively to future TP（r=.21, p<.001） and present-hedonistic TP（r=.27, p<.001）, and related negatively to past-negative TP（r=-.15, p<.001）.Therefore, in contrast with point 5 in the results of study 2 in this dissertation, academic procrastination may not be directly affected by reappraisal. In fact, the relation between reappraisal and academic procrastination was determined by one’s TP. Through the results of above three studies. From this dissertation 7 key points were concluded: 1） Reliability and validity of procrastination inventories which were developed in this dissertation were acceptable. Therefore, these inventories could be used when we want to measure one’s procrastination level and to resolve problems of procrastination. 2）Procrastination was a common behavior in campus. No significant relationship was found between procrastination level and sex, or whether or not the students have part-time work. Procrastination level was mainly affected by one’s TP. People with higher scores of future orientation, lower scores of present-hedonistic and past-negative TP tended to exhibit greater procrastination behavior. 3）People procrastinated more with tasks that they have to do but do not want to do; and less with tasks that they want to do and like to do. 4）There were differences when feelings when procrastinating were compared with different sex or whether or not the students have part-time work. Males were more inclined to excuse themselves than females when they were procrastinating. Females were more inclined to blame themselves and feel regretful than males when they were procrastinating. Non-part-time workers were more inclined to excuse themselves than part-time workers when they were procrastinating. 5）People with higher procrastination levels were more inclined to have scores of wishful thinking, dejection and avoidance, and excuse-making when they were procrastinating. 6）People with higher reappraisal scores of emotion regulation tended to have higher scores of self-blame and regret, higher scores of self-adaptation, lower scores of excuse-making, and lower scores of dejection and avoidance. People with higher suppression scores of emotion regulation tended to have higher scores of excuse-making. 7）People with higher procrastination level tended to exhibit lower scores of innovative behavior. Key words: procrastination, academic procrastination, general procrastination, feelings when procrastinating, innovative behavior, time perspective（TP）, 2×2 achievement goal, emotion regulation

本研究旨在探索自我傷害行為的動機、相關現象與情緒調節功能，並以此為基礎釐清該行為的情緒內涵，包括正向情緒強度特質、負向情緒強度特質、平靜滿足、經驗迴避程度及情緒調節能力。此外，本研究以因素分析探索自傷動機的分類，並以此分類結果為基礎，探討不同自傷動機所引發的情緒種類、情緒強度是否有所不同，在自傷行為的進行方式、次數上是否有顯著差異，並瞭解其無法適當應用的情緒調節能力為何。研究採用問卷調查的方式，研究對象為839位私立高中職生，包括日間部與夜間部，調查所得資料以描述統計分析、卡方檢定、相關分析、獨立樣本t檢定、相依樣本t檢定、因素分析、邏輯迴歸分析和階層迴歸分析進行處理。 本研究主要結果如下：首先支持自傷行為具有負向情緒調節的功能，而經驗迴避對於自傷行為的影響有限。其次，將自傷動機進行因素分析的結果發現可以將其分為四類：人際影響、負向感受的因應、避免失控和負向自我評價。在區分是否有自傷行為部分，情緒調節困難的不接納與無助能夠有效解釋自傷行為的有無；在影響自傷行為的頻率部分，自傷動機的強度與情緒調節困難的衝動失控能夠有效解釋自傷頻率的多寡。此外，本研究發現不同的自傷方式與不同的動機、所處的自傷前情緒有關，且不同的自我傷害動機在情緒強度特質、情緒調節困難、負向情緒和自傷方式上會呈現出不同的樣貌。 / The purpose of this study was to explore the motivations, the phenomenon, and the function of deliberate self-harm behaviors(DSH), and based on these, to clarify emotional contents behind DSH, including positive affect intensity, negative affect intensity, serenity, experiential avoidance and the emotional regulation ability. Besides, the study investigated the classification of the motivations of DSH by exploratory factor analysis, and accordingly discussed whether the affect categories and the affect intensity resulted from the motivations of DSH were different, and whether the motivations of DSH resulted in significantly different using of methods and frequencies, moreover, the emotional dysregulation. The study was based on questionnaires, and the participants were 839 students from a private senior high school , including vocational schools. Data obtained were analyzed by descriptive statistics, correlation analysis, t-test, factor analysis (FA), logistic regression, and hierarchical regression analysis. The main results were as follows: First, the results supported that DSH has regulative function on negative affect, and experiential avoidance influenced DSH limitedly. Second, according to factor analysis, the motivations of DSH were classified into four categories: interpersonal influence, negative affect modulation, control, and negative self-evaluation. Moreover, nonacceptance of the emotion dysregulation could successfully distinguish students with DSH from students with no history of DSH in the past 1 year. Both intensity of motivations and impulse of the emotion dysregulation could reliably predict DSH’s frequency. Finally, different methods of DSH correlated to different motivations and different emotions before DSH, and there were various representations of affect intensity, emotion dysregulation, and methods depends on different motivations.

SUMMARY CONSTRUCTING AND VALIDATING A MEASURING INSTRUMENT FOR COPING WITH OCCUPATIONAL STRESS by Melissa du Plessis Supervisor: Prof N. Martins Department: Industrial and Organisational Psychology Degree: Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology Orientation: Occupational stress is still a concern for both individuals and organisations, and academia is no exception. Employees’ ability to cope with occupational stressors depend on the regulatory strategies they adopt in response to the stressor. However, there is no clear consensus on how the coping construct should be measured. Existing literature further outlines various conceptual and methodological concerns regarding the measurement of coping. Van Wyk (2010) advocates that currently, no coping instrument has been developed and very few instruments have been validated in a South African and African context. Research purpose: The primary objective of this research was to construct a valid and reliable instrument for determining which coping strategies academics adopt in response to occupational stress. Research methodology: A combination of steps, suggested by scale development authors, was followed to develop the instrument. The process was broken down into three phases, namely: (1) theoretical investigation, (2) instrument purification, and (3) instrument optimisation. The construction of the questionnaire was based on a sample of 305 university employees who were permanently employed in a higher education institution in the Gauteng Province of South Africa. Main findings: The study resulted in a psychometrically sound 33-item measuring instrument. Nine empirically validated coping strategies emerged, namely (1) social coping, (2) religious coping, (3) cognitive coping, (4) active leisure coping, (5) avoidant coping, (6) social disengagement, (7) vacation time, (8) rumination, and (9) emotional coping. These strategies were further classified as adaptive or maladaptive coping strategies. CFA confirmed the nine-factor model. Empirical support for construct and content validity, internal consistency reliability v and composite reliability was available. The instrument further demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity. Contribution/value-add: The key contribution of this study was the development of a psychometrically sound instrument for determining which coping strategies academics adopt in response to occupational stress. This study further contributed to constructing and empirically testing a model for coping with occupational stress. Lastly, the study provided support for measurement invariance across different demographical groups, and the findings revealed that individuals from different demographical backgrounds differ significantly in the coping strategies they adopt in response to occupational stress. / DIE ONTWIKKELING EN VALIDASIE VAN ’N MEETINSTRUMENT VIR DIE HANTERING VAN BEROEPSTRES deur Melissa du Plessis Promotor: Prof N Martins Departement: Bedryfs- en Organisasiesielkunde Graad: DPhil in Sielkunde Oriëntasie: Beroepstres is steeds ’n bron van kommer vir individue sowel as organisasies, en die akademiese omgewing is geen uitsondering nie. Werknemers se vermoë om beroepstres te hanteer, word bepaal deur die regulatoriese strategieë wat hulle aanneem in reaksie tot die stressor. Daar is egter geen duidelike konsensus oor hoe die hanteringskonstruk gemeet behoort te word nie. Voorts dui bestaande literatuur op verskeie konseptuele en metodologiese probleme met betrekking tot die meet van streshantering. Van Wyk (2010) beweer dat daar tot dusver geen hanteringsinstrument ontwikkel is nie en baie min instrumente is in ’n Suid-Afrikaanse en Afrika-konteks gevalideer. Doel van die navorsing: Die primêre doel van hierdie navorsing was om ’n geldige en betroubare instrument te ontwikkel waarmee daar bepaal kan word watter hanteringstrategieë akademici aanneem om beroepstres te hanteer. Navorsingsmetodologie: Die instrument is ontwikkel deur die kombinasie van verskeie stappe wat deur skrywers oor skaalontwikkeling voorgestel is. Die proses is in die volgende drie fases verdeel: (1) ’n teoretiese ondersoek; (2) die suiwering van die instrument; en (3) die optimalisering van die instrument. Die vraelys is ontwerp met die oog op die steekproef bestaande uit 305 werknemers met permanente aanstellings by ’n hoëronderwysinstelling in die Gauteng provinsie in Suid-Afrika. Hoofbevindinge: Die studie het gelei tot die ontwerp van ’n psigometries betroubare meetinstrument bestaande uit 33 items. Nege empiries gestaafde hanteringstrategieë het na vore gekom: (1) sosiale hantering; (2) religieuse hantering; (3) kognitiewe hantering; (4) aktieweontspanningshantering; (5) vermydende hantering; (6) sosiale ontkoppeling; (7) vakansietyd; (8) ruminering; en (9) emosionele hantering. Hierdie strategieë is verder vii geklassifiseer as adaptiewe of wanadaptiewe hanteringstrategieë. Dié nege-faktormodel is deur BFA bevestig. Empiriese steun vir konstruk- en inhoudsgeldigheid, interne konsekwentheidsbetroubaarheid en saamgestelde betroubaarheid was beskikbaar. Voorts het die instrument ook konvergente en diskriminantgeldigheid gedemonstreer. Bydrae / waardetoevoeging: Die belangrikste bydrae van hierdie studie was die ontwikkeling van ’n psigometries betroubare instrument wat gebruik kan word om te bepaal watter strategieë akademici volg om beroepstres te hanteer. Die studie het ook bygedra tot die ontwerp en empiriese toetsing van ’n model vir die hantering van beroepstres. Ten slotte het die studie metingsinvariansies oor verskillende demografiese groepe heen bevestig en die bevindinge het getoon dat individue uit verskillende demografiese groepe se hanteringstrategieë vir beroepstres merkbaar verskil. / IQOQO LOKUBAKULEKILE UKWAKHA NOKUQINISEKISA ITHULUZI LOKULINGANISA UKUKWAZI UKUMELA UKUKHATHAZEKA NGENXA YEZIMO ZASEMSEBENZINI ngu Melissa du Plessis UMhloli Olulekayo: USolwazi N Martins Umnyango: Izifundo Mayelana Nokusebenza Kwengqondo Nomthelela Walokho Ekuziphatheni Kwabantu Emsebenzini Iziqu: UDokotela Wezifundo Zefilosofi Maqondana Nokusebenza Kwengqondo Nomthelela Walokho Ekuziphatheni Okumaqondana nakho:Ukukhathazeka okumaqondana nezimo zasemsebenzini kusayinto ehlupha abantu ngabodwana nezinkampani, kanti nezazi zezemfundo ephakeme nazo ngeke zashiywa ngaphandle. Ukukwazi kwabasebenzi ukubhekana nezimbangela zokukhathazeka ngenxa yezimo zomsebenzi kuya ngamasu okulawula asetshenziswayo ukubhekana nalokho okudala ukukhathazeka. Nakuba kunjalo, akukho ukuvumelana okucacile ekutheni lokho okwakhiwe kokubhekana nokukhathazeka kungalinganiswa kanjani. Imibhalo ekhona ibeka kabanzi okukhathazayo okwahlukahlukene okuqondene nokuqanjwa nendlela yokwenza maqondana nokulinganiswa kokukwazi ukubhekana nokukhathazeka. UVan Wyk (2010) ulwela ukuthi, njengamanje, akunathuluzi elakhelwe ukuqonda ngokukhathazeka eselike lakhiwa kanti ambalwa amathuluzi aseke aqinisekiswa eNingizimu Afrika nase-Afrika. Injongo yocwaningo:Okuyiyona njongo eqavile yalolu cwaningo ngukwakha ithuluzi elifanele nelikholakalayo ukuveza ukuthi yimaphi amasu okubhekana nezimo asetshenziswa yizazi kwezemfundo ephakeme ezimweni zokukhathazeka ngenxa yomsebenzi. Indlela ezolandelwa ekwenzeni ucwaningo:Ukuze kusungulwe leli thuluzi, kulandelwe inhlanganisela yamagxathu ahlongozwe ngababhala mayelana nokwakhiwa kwezikali. Indlela elandelwayo yahlukaniswa izigaba ezintathu, okuyilezi: (1) ukuhlolwa kwesichasiselo esibonwa ngokucabanga kwengqondo, (2) ukuhlanjululwa kwethuluzi, kanye (3) nokusetshenziswa kwangcono kwethuluzi. Ukuhlanganiswa kohlu lwemibuzo kwakuncike esampuleni lwabasebenzi basenyuvesi abangama-305 ababeqashwe ngokugcwele esikhungweni semfundo ephakeme esifundazweni saseGauteng eNingizimu Afrika. ix Imiphumela yocwaningo eqavile: Lolu cwaningo lwadala ukuba kube khona ithuluzi lokulinganisa elisebenza kahle maqondana nokukala okuphathelene nengqondo okunezinhla ezingama-33. Kwavela amasu ayisishiyagalolunye aqinisekiswe ngokubhekwa, nokuyilawa (1) ukubhekana nesimo ngokokuhlalisana nabantu, (2) ukubhekana nesimo ngokwezenkolo, (3) ukubhekana nesimo ngokokuqonda, (4) ukubhekana nesimo ngokuzibandakanya nezikaqedisizungu, (5) ukubhekana nesimo ngokuzila okuthile, (6) ukungazibandakanyi nezimo ezihlanganisana nabantu, (7) ukungcebeleka, (8) ukuzindla, kanye (9) nokubhekana nesimo ngokuba nomunyu. La masu abuye afakwa ngaphansi kohlu lwamasu okubhekana nesimo alandelekayo nangalandeleki. I-CFA yaziqinisekisa lezi zindlela ezihlukene kasishiyagalolunye. Ukwesekelwa kokubonakele ukuqinisekisa okwakhiwe nokuqukethwe, indlela yokubheka ukuthi ithuluzi elisetshenziswayo likulinganisa ngendlela efanele kangakanani lokho okubhekwayo kanye nokusebenza ngokukholakala ngokuphelele kwamaqoqo asetshenzisiwe. Ithuluzi labuye laveza ukuqinisekiseka kokufanayo nokwahlukayo. Okusebenzile/ okuhambisana nenzuzo: Okuyiyona nto emqoka kakhulu maqondana nalolu cwaningo kwaba ngukusungulwa kwethuluzi lokulinganisa elisebenza kahle maqondana nokulinganisa okuphathelene nengqondo ukubona ukuthi yimaphi amasu okubhekana nezimo asetshenziswa yizazi kwezemfundo ephakeme ezimweni zokukhathazeka ngenxa yomsebenzi. Ucwaningo luphinde lwadlala indima ekwakheni nasekuhloleni ngokubheka okwenzekayo ngethuluzi elingasetshenziselwa ukubhekana nesimo sokukhathazeka emsebenzini. Okokugcina, ucwaningo luhlinzeke ukwesekelwa kokungaguquki kwezilinganiso emaqoqweni ahlukahlukene ngokwezigaba, kanti imiphumela yaveza ukuthi abantu abaqhamuka emaqoqweni ahlukahlukene ngokwezigaba ahluka kakhulu uma kufikwa emaswini abakhetha ukuwasebenzisa maqondana nokukhathazeka ngenxa yezimo zomsebenzi. / Psychology / D. Phil.(Psychology)

Le deuil normal, ou résilient, a souvent été laissé pour compte dans la littérature, au profit de l’intérêt plus grand porté au deuil pathologique. Cette réalité, qui s’inscrit dans le cadre d’une culture de médicalisation, a pu contribuer à la normalisation de la vision du deuil comme nuisible au fonctionnement et inutilement souffrant. Or, un certain regain d’intérêt pour l’étude des processus du deuil normal est visible dans la littérature, l’idée que le deuil résilient est en fait plus répandu que les deuils plus difficiles n’ayant été que récemment démontrée empiriquement (Bonanno, 2009). Une confusion demeure quant au rôle des émotions liées au deuil, qui sont souvent vues comme des symptômes, étant mal différenciées les unes des autres dans leur nature et leur fonction. Pourtant, la tristesse, apanage d’un deuil résilient et sain, aurait une fonction adaptative, contrairement à la détresse et la dépression, qui évoquent davantage le processus de séparation entre l’enfant et sa figure d’attachement. En effet, l’enfant, lors du départ de la figure d’attachement, vit une émotion débordante et intolérable, la protestation, suivie d’un état de désespoir. Ces émotions seraient ainsi qualitativement différentes, et non seulement quantitativement différentes. Cette thèse vise donc d’une part, via un volet théorique, à proposer un modèle du deuil résilient, mais aussi du deuil pathologique, en lien avec la tristesse, la détresse et la dépression, redonnant à chacune leur juste place. Ces deux types de deuil sont présentés comme les extrêmes d’un continuum entre lesquels toute variation peut exister. La tristesse, dans ce modèle, est dépeinte comme une émotion utile, jouant un rôle dans l’acceptation de la perte et dans la capacité à lui donner un sens. D’autre part, un volet empirique s’intéresse à l’expérience subjective de la tristesse chez des endeuillés résilients adultes ayant perdu un parent. Des entrevues semi-structurées ont été conduites auprès de six participants, et les résultats ont été analysés avec une approche qualitative, l’Analyse Phénoménologique Interprétative (IPA). Les résultats montrent que la tristesse était vécue comme étant tolérable, comme ayant une fonction adaptative et un sens, même si elle reste désagréable à vivre. Comme le deuil n’est pas vécu en vase clos, un surplus de matériel à métaboliser et des circonstances externes variables, ainsi que des variations dans les capacités de mentalisation, peuvent expliquer la présence d’autres expériences émotionnelles et de symptômes somatiques. La tristesse semble toutefois être un ingrédient essentiel d’un deuil résilient, où la personne demeure fonctionnelle et n’est triste que par courtes périodes, venant par vagues. Les implications cliniques et diagnostiques de ces résultats ainsi que du modèle présenté dans cette thèse sont abordées. / Normal, or resilient, grief has often been neglected in the literature, overshadowed by the greater number of studies on pathological grief. This fact, congruent with the trend towards a culture of medicalization, can explain the normalization of the idea of grief as uselessly painful, or even harmful, a nuisance to productivity and functioning. On the other hand, there has been a growing interest in the processes of normal grief in recent years, the idea that resilient grief is more common than pathological grief having only been recently supported by empirical research (Bonanno, 2009). However, the function and nature of grief-related emotions, which are often seen as symptoms, still isn’t clear. Sadness, contrarily to common knowledge, seems to be a healthy characteristic of resilient grief, and could have an adaptive function, whereas distress and depression would evoke the protest and despair phases of the separation between the child and her attachment figure. Thus, these three affective experiences would be qualitatively, and not only quantitatively, distinct. This thesis aims to present, in its first part, a theoretical model of both resilient and pathological grief, elaborating on the function and place of sadness, distress and depression. These two types of grief are presented as the extremes of a continuum, in between which any number of variations could exist. Sadness, in this model, is depicted as a useful emotion that plays a part in the acceptation of loss and in the creation of a meaning. In its second, empirical part, the subjective experience of sadness in resilient grieving adults who lost a parent is observed. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with six participants, and the results were analyzed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Results show that sadness was experienced as tolerable, adaptive, and making sense, even if it was painful. As grief is never an isolated experience in life, circumstances and concurrent events, and variations in mentalization abilities, can explain the presence of other emotions or of somatic symptoms. Sadness, however, seems to be an essential ingredient of resilient grief, where the person remains functional, but is sad only by shorts bursts, coming in waves. The clinical and diagnostic implications of these results and of the theoretical model presented in this thesis are discussed.

L’exposition à l’adversité précoce (AP) a été suggérée comme augmentant le risque de souffrir de psychopathologies associées à une dérégulation du système physiologique de stress ainsi qu’une altération de certains processus cognitifs. Cela dit, les études rapportent des résultats divergents quant à la direction de l’association entre l’AP, la sécrétion de cortisol (la principale hormone de stress chez l’humain) ainsi que la nature de ces dérèglements cognitifs chez l’adulte. Le ‘modèle du cycle de vie’ souligne l’importance de considérer le moment où l’AP a eu lieu pour la première fois (c.-à-d. l’âge minimal d’exposition) en vue d’expliquer ces discordances, considérant que les régions cérébrales importantes à la régulation du stress physiologique et possédant des récepteurs à cortisol (l’hippocampe, l’amygdale et le cortex préfrontal) ne se développent pas au même rythme. En vue de tester le modèle du cycle de vie, le but de cette thèse est d’évaluer le rôle modulateur de l’âge de la première exposition à l’AP sur le système physiologique de stress de même que sur les processus cognitifs soutenus par l’hippocampe, l’amygdale et le cortex préfrontal d’adultes en santé. Précisément, l’objectif de la première étude était de déterminer si l’âge minimal d’exposition à l’AP modulait le cortisol basal et réactif d’adultes en santé, et ce, en comparaison avec un modèle compétitif : celui de l’accumulation de l’AP, qui considère qu’il est important de considérer le nombre d’AP auquel l’individu a fait face au cours de son développement. Pour ce faire, nous avons mesuré le cortisol basal à l’aide d’échantillons de salive récoltés à la maison de même qu’en réaction à un stresseur psychosocial validé, le Trier Social Stress Test, chez 85 adultes en santé. Nous avons démontré que l’âge minimal d’exposition à l’AP module bel et bien le cortisol basal et réactif d’adultes en santé, et que ce modèle est un meilleur prédicteur du système physiologique de stress que celui du modèle d’accumulation mesuré via le Adverse Childhood Experience Questionnaire. En effet, nous avons démontré qu’être exposé pour la première fois à l’AP entre 3 et 7 ans (importante fenêtre de développement de l’amygdale) mène à une réponse cortisolaire au réveil plus élevée ainsi qu’à une réactivité cortisolaire plus faible en comparaison aux adultes ayant été exposés pour la première fois avant 3 ans ou après 7 ans. Ensuite, étant donné que l’hippocampe, l’amygdale et le cortex préfrontal possèdent des récepteurs à cortisol qui sont affectés par la sécrétion chronique d’hormones de stress en lien avec l’AP, l’objectif de la seconde étude était d’évaluer l’effet de l’âge minimal d’exposition à l’AP sur les processus cognitifs soutenus par ces structures. Pour ce faire, nous avons mesuré la mémoire déclarative (hippocampe), les biais attentionnels vers les informations menaçantes (amygdale) et la régulation émotionnelle (connexion frontoamygdalienne) en fonction de l’âge minimal d’exposition à l’AP chez les mêmes sujets en santé. Nous avons démontré que les femmes exposées à l’AP pour la première fois après l'âge de 8 ans (fenêtre de développement de la connectivité frontoamygdalienne) présentent un biais attentionnel vers les informations menaçantes. Dans l’ensemble, les résultats de cette thèse soutiennent partiellement le modèle du cycle de vie et offrent une perspective nouvelle sur certaines fenêtres développementales qui semblent plus sensibles aux effets de l’AP sur certaines régions du cerveau responsables de réguler le stress et les émotions. / Early adversity (EA) has been shown to be a potent risk factor in the development of psychopathologies associated with a deregulation of the physiological stress system as well as cognitive functions. However, studies report divergent results as to the direction of the association between EA, the secretion of cortisol (the main stress hormone in humans) and the nature of these cognitive dysfunctions in adulthood. The Life cycle model of stress underlines the importance of considering the moment at which EA first occurred, given that the brain regions that are necessary to regulate the stress response and that are dense in cortisol receptors (the hippocampus, the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex) do not develop at the same rhythm. In order to test the Life cycle model of stress, the aim of this thesis is to evaluate the modulating role of the age at first exposure to EA on the physiological stress system as well as on the cognitive processes sustained by the hippocampus, the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex in healthy adults. Precisely, the goal of the first study was to determine if the minimal age at exposure to EA modulated basal and reactive cortisol levels in 85 healthy adults, and to compare these results to a competing model: the Accumulation model (which suggests that the number of EA predicts patterns of cortisol dysregulations). To do so, we measured basal cortisol using saliva samples collected at home as well as in response to a validated psychosocial stressor, the Trier Social Stress Test. We have shown that minimal age at exposure to EA does indeed modulate the basal and reactive cortisol patterns in healthy adults, and that this model is a better predictor of the physiological stress system as opposed to the Accumulation model measured using the Adverse Childhood Experience Questionnaire. Indeed, results showed that although the number of EA was not associated with patterns of basal or reactive cortisol secretion, adults first exposed to EA between the ages of 3 and 7 – an important time window for amygdala development – showed greater cortisol awakening response and lower cortisol reactivity relative to those first exposed to EA before 3 or after 7. Then, given that the hippocampus, the amygdala and the prefrontal cortex possess cortisol receptors that are affected by the chronic secretion of stress hormones following EA, the goal of the second study was to evaluate the effect of minimal age at exposure to EA on the cognitive processes sustained by these structures. To do this, we measured declarative memory (hippocampus), attentional bias to threat (amygdala) and emotional regulation (frontoamygdala connection) as a function of minimal age at exposure to EA in the vi same healthy subjects. Results revealed increased attentional bias to threat in women first exposed to EA after 8 years (prefrontal cortex and frontoamygdala connectivity development). Overall, the results of this thesis partially support the Life cycle model of stress and highlight the importance of considering the age at first exposure to EA when investigating the long-lasting effects of EA on physiological stress and cognitive processes in healthy adults.