La citoyenneté européenne structure un nouveau type de communauté politique, plurielle, composée de nations organisées en États. D’essence fédérale, elle reflète le fédéralisme spécifique de l’Union européenne, dissocié d’un projet de construction nationale. Son édification repose sur la reconnaissance d’une valeur autonome aux deux citoyennetés dans l’Union, nationale et européenne, tant au niveau de sa définition comme source de droits individuels, que de son organisation comme principe de légitimité démocratique. Cette approche se vérifie dans la définition de la citoyenneté européenne comme statut qui admet un degré de différenciation entre les citoyens européens, fondé sur le respect de l’existence et de l’identité politique des peuples européens.Statut fondamental, source de droits individuels, la citoyenneté européenne l’est essentiellement sur un plan transnational. Sa fonction intégrative réside essentiellement dans l’effacement partiel des frontières physiques et symboliques des communautés nationales, par le renforcement de la résidence européenne et de l’égalité de traitement. Mais elle admet une différenciation au niveau du statut politique et social des citoyens européens sur un plan transnational, fondée sur le degré d’appartenance à la communauté nationale.Principe de légitimité de l’Union, la citoyenneté européenne l’est sans désigner l’appartenance à un demos européen souverain, dont l’unité résiderait dans un projet de construction nationale. Fondée à la fois sur l’individu-citoyen et sur les peuples des Etats membres, la démocratie européenne repose sur la définition de la citoyenneté européenne comme statut politique différencié, reflétant l’appartenance politique double des citoyens, à leurs Etats respectifs et à l’Union européenne. / EU Citizenship structures a new kind of political community, which is plural, composed of nation-states. Of federal essence, it reflects the particular federalism of the EU, which is independent from a nation-building project. Its construction is based on the recognition of an autonomous value of the two levels of citizenship in the EU, national and European, both in terms of its definition as a source of individual rights, and of its construction as a principle of democratic legitimacy. This approach is reflected in the definition of EU Citizenship as a status which allows a degree of differentiation between European citizens, based on the respect for the political existence and identity of European peoples.EU Citizenship is a fundamental status, source of individual rights, on a transnational level mainly. Its integrative function consists in the partial blurring of the physical and symbolic boundaries of the national communities, through the consolidation of residence and equal treatment rights. It admits however a differentiation in terms of political and social status of EU citizens on a transnational level, based on the degree of belonging to the national community.EU Citizenship is defined as a source of democratic legitimacy, without it designating membership in a European sovereign demos. European democracy is based on both the individual citizen and the European peoples, through the definition of EU Citizenship as a differentiated political status, reflecting the dual political affiliation of citizens, to their respective States and the European Union.

Discrimination of women in the labor law This diploma paper deals with the problem of discrimination of women in the labor law while discrimination being one of the biggest phenomenons of modern society. Its main objective is to provide an overview of current legislation, which deals with prohibition of discrimination based on sex in labor law relations. Furthermore it analyzes the current position of women in the labor market and in our society. In the end of the paper there is also a little research based on a question form for men and women employed by the Police of the Czech republic and it questions their experience and opinion on discrimination based on sex at work. The thesis is divided into six main parts. The first part is dedicated to the historical development of the status of women in the society and it shows how was their role changing within different historical periods, explaining some aspects why men and women are not accepted equally. The second part of the thesis explains the main terms such as equality, discrimination (both direct and indirect), harassment and sexual harassment and others, which are important for the whole concept of this thesis and they are used throughout the whole paper. In the next part the thesis analyzes the status of women in the labor law relations in...

Resumé Equal treatment and non-discrimination are rules that are essential in international law, European law and national law. They are regulated in many international documents, in terms of European law, especially, in the regulations and directives. Czech Republic, as one of the member States of the European Union is obliged to ensure compliance of national law with European law. It was therefore necessary in order to ensure compliance with requirements of the EC / EU in the field of equal treatment and non-discrimination of employees that are regulated in anti-discrimination directives with our national law. This happened by adoption of Act No. 198/2009 Coll., Anti-Discrimination Act, which as a general law governing these principles. In my works I deal with treatment of these principles in the documents of international law and international organizations active in this area in the primary and secondary law of the EC/EU and also the current modification in our legal system. My work is divided into an introduction, six sections and a conclusion. The first part of my work deals with the basic concepts relevant to this area, such as equality, equal treatment, discrimination and its types, as direct or indirect, and others. In the second part I focused on the modification of the principle of equal...

Private-Law Aspects of Czech Alien Law This thesis is dedicated to Czech alien law regulations in the context of their private law aspects. Alien law is a set of legal norms concerning the legal status of foreign citizens in a territory of a certain state. In general, it is understood as different treatment of aliens than the citizens of that state, a possibility of such treatment, or providing certain advantages to the foreigners. The foundation of this work is a detailed analysis of the material status of foreigners in the scope of their individual and property rights, including a foreigner as a party to a civil suit. Main focus of the thesis is on the description of individual institution and law principles regarding international private and procedural law, taking into account a future regulation from a new norm in international private law. In particular, emphasis is put on an analysis of equal treatment of foreigners, possibilities of refusal of such treatment, principles of reciprocity in the formal and material sense, conditions of the foreigner's claim to be relieved from judicial fees, eligibility of the foreigner as a party to a suit, etc. Special focus has been given to the matters closely related to alien law, such as the definition of an alien, dual citizenship, habitual residence etc....

The purpose of this study is to investigate if pedagogues treat children differently, depending on the children's sex. In the study, interviews are made with pre-school pedagogues about their thoughts on gender education in pre-school. The research questions are as follows:  How do the pedagogues treat children depending on their sex in some pre-selected situations in pre-school? What do the pedagogues think about gender education in pre-school?  How do their reasoning about gender education differ from how they treat girls and boys in their every day practice? In total nine observations and six interviews have been made in order to analyse these questions. During the observations we wrote down keywords, and we used audio recording to record the interviews. The overall theoretical framework is based on Yvonne Hirdman's work on gender theory. The results of this study show, that the pedagogues on numerous occasions do not treat girls and boys equally. All pedagogues, however, say that they either treat girls and boys equally, or that they hope that they treat girls and boys equally. A conclusion in the study is that the reality of the pedagogues’ treatment of children of different sexes, is not compatible with the pedagogues’ perspective of how they treat the children

Com o declínio do ideal de reabilitação, a partir principalmente de 1970, impulsionado pelo fracasso do modelo de exclusão para inclusão, muitas jurisdições ocidentais passaram a colocar a retribuição e a proporcionalidade no centro da decisão sobre a pena, com o objetivo de diminuir disparidades entre penas, ou seja, garantir que pessoas que cometem crimes de gravidade semelhante recebam penas semelhantes. Práticas que visam aumentar a uniformidade das penas em relação ao tipo penal como penas mínimas, aumentos obrigatórios de pena e obrigação de cumprimento de determinado tempo de pena antes de progredir de regime - envolvem, necessariamente, a imposição de obstáculos à individualização da pena pelo juiz e podem ocultar desigualdade maior: o tratamento semelhante de casos distintos. A pesquisa empírica desenvolvida no trabalho baseia-se na análise de casos concretos de roubo com causa de aumento (conduta responsável por mais da metade da população prisional brasileira) em que foi aplicada a pena mínima, de 5 anos e 4 meses de prisão. O estudo dos casos revelou situações concretas muito distintas entre si com a mesma pena, muitas vezes inclusive com a mesma fundamentação, o que aponta para uma padronização da decisão judicial nesses casos. A definição de pena em abstrato pelo legislador, em função da gravidade do crime, garante que pessoas condenadas pelos mesmos tipos penais recebam penas semelhantes, mas oculta inúmeras diferenças entre os casos concretos. Esta dissertação argumenta contra o uso da igualdade e da proporcionalidade princípios que têm papel fundamental para coibir o abuso do poder estatal para impedir o juiz de reduzir a pena ou de aplicar sanção alternativa à prisão, quando a pena prevista em lei não for adequada. Permitir maior individualização da pena não significa patrocinar um sistema de penas indeterminadas de prisão, mas sim atribuir a tarefa de escolha da pena a quem tem o caso diante dos olhos, sempre com critérios que guiem e controlem a decisão por motivação, até para que seja possível o desenvolvimento de um verdadeiro sistema de alternativas à prisão. / From 1970 onwards, with the decline of the rehabilitative ideal, driven in part by the failure of the social exclusion rehabilitation model, many jurisdictions turned to retribution and proportionality to answer the question of how much to punish. The intentions were noble: to reduce sentencing disparity, guarantying that offenses of similar gravity receive similarly harsh sentences. Strategies aimed at improving sentencing uniformity e.g. minimum mandatory sentences, mandatory aggravating factors and parole restrictions necessarily obstruct sentencing discretion and may conceal even greater inequality, consisting of similar treatment of unlike situated offenders. In my empirical research, I study sentencing decisions for robbery offenses (robbery convictions make up for more than half of Brazilian prison population) in which the same punishment has been decided upon (prison term of 5 years and 4 months) and, in a qualitative approach, analyze what they have in common and which differences the sentencing decision does not distinguish. I found many cases with very different concrete circumstances, with the same prison sentence and even with the same judicial reasoning, which points towards an unfair case aggregation. The definition of adequate punishment by the legislative body, based only on offense gravity, may make people convicted of similar offenses receive the same sentences, but conceals many differences between each case. I argue against the use of equality and proportionality ideals that once served exclusively for individual protection from the State to prevent the judge from reducing a sentence or from applying intermediate punishment in a given case. To allow greater individualization is different from favoring indeterminate sentencing. It means assigning the sentencing task to the person who has the case before them, always with guidelines that may control the decision through motivation, so maybe it finally becomes possible to develop a true system of alternatives to imprisonment.

The principle of equal treatment and non-discrimination in labor relations Abstract This dissertation focuses on the analysis of the legal regulation of the Czech Republic containing the principle of equal treatment of employees and the prohibition of their discrimination in labor relations. The other objective is to compare the legal regulations of other European Union Member States and to apply the principle of equal treatment and non- discrimination in practice, including the abundant case law of The Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Court of Human Rights and the less case law of the Czech courts. The content of this dissertation above all is an introduction of the principle of equal treatment and non- discrimination, differentiation of material and formal equality including specification of individual discriminatory reasons and an introduction of the most important legal sources in the international legislation, standards of the European anti-discriminatory law and domestic legal adjustment. Another part describes the rules of equal treatment and the ban of discrimination applied in real life in the area of remuneration in terms of rewarding somebody the same amount for the work of same value, and a possibility of achieving a functional or other types of promotion without...

The purpose of this study is to investigate how the legal protection against sexual harassment at work functions, and where to draw the line. The study is limited to focus on the sexual harassment directed at women from men, because it usually occurs that way even though only a few report the incidents. The results are discussed from a gender perspective on how the distribution of power is between men and women as a way to explain sexual harassment.Sexual harassment is currently protected by the discrimination law and the EU principle of equal treatment for men and women. For a behavior to be considered as sexual harassment it has to be unwanted by the receiving party and the person practicing the harassments must be aware that the behavior is perceived as offensive. The behavior shall be of a sexual nature and contribute to a disadvantage for the victim in the form of a violation of that persons integrity.It is the victim that determines whether the behavior is perceived as sexual harassment or not, what one person believes is a friendly behavior may be perceived as offensive by another. Therefore, it becomes difficult to know where to draw the line, it is not defined in law and it is a subjective assessment. There are some behaviors that clearly are sexual harassment, but when it's not as clear, a notice is needed to the person performing the harassments. If the behavior continues after the warning it counts as sexual harassments.It is the employer's responsibility to ensure that sexual harassment doesn’t take place in the workplace and to investigate the incidents when it occurs. Only the employer can be held accountable in court for not fulfilling its investigation duty. A worker can’t be sentenced for sexual harassment if it doesn’t involve serious crimes which are regulated in the Penal Code.Sexual harassment is usually carried out by men against women and is therefore an important gender issue. Sexual harassment must be understood from a gender power perspective and it’s a way to maintain gender power relations between the sexes, where men have the power and are superior to women. The creation of gender power relations are both conscious and unconscious and maintained from both men and women, where sexual harassment is only a small part of a larger societal problem. / Syftet med denna studie är att utreda hur det rättsliga skyddet mot sexuella trakasserier ser ut i arbetslivet idag samt var gränsen går. Studien är avgränsad till att endast fokusera på de sexuella trakasserier som riktar sig till kvinnor från män, då detta förekommer i störst utsträckning även om få anmäler. Resultatet diskuteras sedan ur ett könsmaktsperspektiv då detta är ett sätt att förklara företeelsen sexuella trakasserier mellan män och kvinnor.Sexuella trakasserier skyddas idag genom diskrimineringslagen och genom EU-rättens lika-behandlingsprincip. För att ett beteende ska räknas som sexuella trakasserier ska det vara oönskat från den mottagande parten och den som utför trakasserierna ska ha insikt i att beteendet uppfattas som kränkande. Handlingarna ska vara av sexuell natur och bidra till ett missgynnande för den drabbade i form av en kränkning.Det är den utsatta som avgör om handlingarna uppfattas som sexuella trakasserier eller inte, det som en person uppfattar som ett vänskapligt beteende kan uppfattas som kränkande av en annan. Därför blir det svårt att veta var gränsen går, det definieras inte i lagtexten och det är en subjektiv bedömning. Det finns handlingar som uppenbart är sexuella trakasserier, men när det inte är lika enkelt behövs en tillsägelse till den som utför trakasserierna, fortsätter beteendet även efter anmärkningen är det att räkna som sexuella trakasserier.Det är arbetsgivarens ansvar att se till att sexuella trakasserier inte förekommer på arbets-platsen och att utreda händelserna när de ändå uppkommer. Endast arbetsgivaren kan ställas till svars inför domstol för att inte fullgjort sin utredningsplikt, en arbetstagare kan inte dömas för sexuella trakasserier om det inte rör sig om grövre fall som är reglerade i brottsbalken.Sexuella trakasserier sker oftast från män mot kvinnor och är därför en viktig jämställdhets-fråga. Sexuella trakasserier måste förstås ur ett könsmaktsperspektiv och ett sätt att behålla könsmaktsordningen mellan könen, där männen har makten och är överordnade kvinnorna. Skapandet och behållandet av könsmaktsordningen sker både medvetet och omedvetet från båda könen, där sexuella trakasserier bara är en liten del i ett större samhällsproblem.

The purpose of this essay is to describe and analyze how three leisure centers in Örebro county are working with gender issues. Our research questions are: What is Machofabriken? How do leisure centers in Örebro county work with equal treatment? In which way do leisure centers in Örebro county work with Machofabriken’s material? How come the recreation centers in Örebro don’t use Machofabriken’s material to any greater extent? We have focused on masculinity oriented gender projects at three leisure centers. We did semi-structured interviews with three recreation leaders who have all been educated in Machofabriken. The interviews were analyzed based on terms that are central in gender equality and masculinity research. The result demonstrates how they work with gender equality, how they use Machofabriken’s material and their thoughts and opinions about the material. / Syftet med denna uppsats är att beskriva och analysera hur tre fritidsgårdar i Örebro kommun arbetar med jämställdhet. Våra frågeställningar är: Vad är Machofabriken? Hur ser jämställdhetsarbetet ut på fritidsgårdar i Örebro kommun? På vilket sätt arbetar fritidsgårdar med Machofabrikens material? Varför används inte Machofabrikens material i någon större utsträckning på fritidsgårdarna i Örebro? Vi har fokuserat på tre fritidsgårdars jämställdhetsarbete, framförallt det riktat mot unga män. Vi har utgått från semistrukturerade intervjuer med tre fritidsledare som alla har gått en utbildning i Machofabriken. Intervjuerna är analyserade utifrån begrepp som är centrala inom jämställdhets- och maskulinitetsforskning. Resultatet visar hur de arbetar med jämställdhet, hur de använder Machofabrikens material och deras tankar och åsikter om materialet.

Pregnant workers are considered at risk in the labor market and therefore need extra protection from employment discrimination . The purpose of this essay is to investigate what protection of pregnant workers against discrimination in employment situations and  if  there  is  no  corresponding  protection  for  female  workers  claim  the  right  to parental leave. The essay describes the national and EU rules on applications and practice, showing how pregnant women and workers on parental leave are treated in the labor market. Through Sweden's accession to the EU , we must apply the requirements nationally EU imposes on its member countries. The essay shows that pregnant employees have a strong legal protection from discrimination in employment , from both DL and by EU directives . Employers who deny workers employment because of pregnancy is guilty of direct discrimination on grounds of sex, because it is only women who may become pregnant. It is not important whether it is a temporary or permanent position . Employers must never deviate from the protection of pregnant workers in employment situations.  Furthermore, states the essay that male workers are protected from unfair treatment in relation to parental leave by 16 § föräldraledighetslagen. Male workers are not as strongly   protected   as   an   employer   is   allowed   to   derogate   from   disadvantaged prohibition in certain situations. / Gravida arbetstagare anses vara en riskgrupp på arbetsmarknaden och behöver därförextra skydd mot diskriminering i arbetslivet. Syftet med denna uppsats är att utreda vilket skydd gravida arbetstagare har mot diskriminering i anställningssituationer samt om det finns något motsvarande skydd för manliga arbetstagare gällande rätten tillföräldraledighet.Uppsatsen redovisar nationella och EU-­‐rättsliga bestämmelser på området samt praxis som visar hur gravida och föräldralediga arbetstagare behandlas på arbetsmarknaden. Genom Sveriges anslutning till EU måste vi nationellt tillämpa de krav EU ställer på sinamedlemsländer.Uppsatsen visar att gravida arbetstagare har ett starkt rättsligt skydd från diskriminering i arbetslivet, både från DL samt genom direktiv från EU. Arbetsgivare som nekar arbetstagare anställning på grund graviditet gör sig skyldig till direkt diskriminering på grund av kön, eftersom det endast är kvinnor som kan bli gravida. Det är inte av betydelse om det gäller en tidsbegränsad -­‐eller tillsvidareanställning. Arbetsgivare får aldrig frångå skyddet gravida arbetstagare har i anställningssituationer. Vidare fastslår uppsatsen att manliga arbetstagare skyddas mot missgynnande i samband med föräldraledighet genom 16 § föräldraledighetslagen. Manliga arbetstagare är dock inte lika starkt skyddad eftersom arbetsgivare tillåts att göra undantag frånmissgynnandeförbudet i vissa situationer.