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Although there is no consensus among biologists as to whether human behaviour can beexplained by evolution, there are a number of theories and models in different fields ofresearch that aim to do just that. Philosophy is no exception. In metaethics, evolutionarybiology is used to formulate an evolutionary debunking explanation. This skepticalepistemological tool is used to show that if evolution has, in some way, affected humanmorality, then we cannot have true justified belief in moral matters.An ongoing debate about the evolutionary debunking explanation is about howmuch empirical detail the evolutionary debunking explanation can demand. With this paper, Iwant to examine how philosophers writing about the evolutionary debunking explanation useevolutionary biology, as well as how much evolutionary biology is required for theevolutionary debunking explanation to be valid. I will argue that it is possible to identifythree difficulties in using evolutionary biology to formulate a philosophical tool.

Deep-learning models have been shown to produce accurate predictions in various scientific and engineering applications, such as turbulence modelling, by efficiently learning complex nonlinear relations from data. However, deep networks are often black boxes and it is not clear from the model parameters which inputs are more important to a prediction. As a result, it is difficult to understand whether models are taking into account physically relevant information and little theoretical understanding of the phenomenon modelled by the deep network can be gained.  In this work, methods from the field of explainable AI, based on Shapley Value approximation, are applied to compute feature attributions in previously trained fully convolutional deep neural networks for predicting velocity fluctuations in an open channel turbulent flow using wall quantities as inputs. The results show that certain regions in the inputs to the model have a higher importance to a prediction, which is verified by computational experiments that confirm the models are more sensitive to those inputs as compared to randomly selected inputs, if the error in the prediction is considered. These regions correspond to certain strongly distinguishable features (visible structures) in the model inputs. The correlations between the regions with high importance and visible structures in the model inputs are investigated with a linear regression analysis. The results indicate that certain physical characteristics of these structures are highly correlated to the importance of individual input features within these structures. / Djupinlärningsmodeller har visat sig kunna producera korrekta förutsägelser i olika vetenskapliga och tekniska tillämpningar, såsom turbulensmodellering, genom att effektivt lära sig komplexa olinjära relationer från data. Djupa neurala nätverk är dock ofta svarta lådor och det framgår inte av modellparametrarna vilka delar av indata som är viktigast för en förutsägelse. Som ett resultat av detta är det svårt att förstå om modellerna tar hänsyn till fysiskt relevant information och de ger inte heller någon teoretisk förståelse för fenomenet som modelleras av det djupa nätverket. I detta arbete tillämpas metoder från området för förklarabar AI, baserade på approximation av så kallde Shapley värden, för att beräkna vilka delar av indata som är viktigst för de prediktioner som görs. Detta görs för djupa neurala faltningsnätverk som tränats för att förutsäga hastighetsfluktuationer i ett turbulent flöde i en öppen kanal med hjälp av väggkvantiteter som indata. Resultaten visar att vissa regioner i indata till modellen har större betydelse för en förutsägelse. Detta verifieras av beräkningsexperiment som bekräftar att modellerna är mer känsliga för dessa indata jämfört med slumpmässigt valda indata, baserat på det resulterande felet i förutsägelser som görs av det tränade nätverket. Dessa regioner motsvarar vissa starkt särskiljbara egenskaper (synliga strukturer) i indata till modellen. Korrelationerna mellan regionerna med hög betydelse och synliga strukturer i indata undersöks med linjär regressionsanalys. Resultaten indikerar att vissa fysiska egenskaper hos dessa strukturer är starkt korrelerade med de approximativa Shapley värden som beräknats för dessa delar av indata.

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I föreliggande studie undersöks relationen mellan ”förklaringar” och musikalisk interpretation. Mer specifikt frågan varför jag spelar Prokofievs 6:e pianosonat på ett visst sätt. Alla interpreter gör olika val vid förberedelsen och framförandet av ett musikaliskt verk. Många av de valen handlar om tempo, dynamik, frasering men även andra musikaliska parametrar. Denna studie undersöker till vilken grad sådana val går att basera på analytiska ”förklaringar” rörande musikens struktur. Med hjälp av teoretiska perspektiv från Leonard Meyer och Karl Popper undersöker jag ett antal passager som delvis blivit valda för att belysa hur varierat de brukar tolkas. Framförallt försöker studien att undersöka den ”tysta kunskapen” som ligger bakom specifika interpretationer — och i processen göra den kunskapen artikulerad. På grund av detta kan resultatet vara värdefullt både för teoretiker men också för praktiken inom intepretation. Projektet kulminerade i ett liveframförande av sonaten som spelades in. Det framförandet var influerat av min analys av musiken. / The present study investigates the relationship between “explanations” and musical interpretation. More specifically the question why do I play Prokofievs 6th piano sonata in a particular way? Every interpreter makes choices when preparing and performing a musical work. Many such choices involve tempo, dynamics, or phrasing, as well as other musical parameters. This study explores the degree to which these choices may be based on analytic “explanations" of the structure of the music. Building upon the theoretical work of Leonard Meyer and Karl Popper, I identify certain passages which highlight the diversity of interpretation, examining the differences through structural and interpretive analyses. Above all, the study seeks to understand the “tacit knowledge” embodied in certain approaches to musical interpretation — and, in the process, to make it explicit. Therefore, the results are of potential value not only in performance analysis, but in the training of performers. The project culminated in a performance and live recording of the sonata which were influenced by my analysis of the music.

The thesis focuses on how students learn history in the classroom, more precisely on their possibilities and difficulties in developing competence in the school subject of history. There is a particular emphasis on how they explain and understand historical processes and concepts within the subject of history. Participants are students of different grades, 8–19 years old. The purpose of the study is to explore how students learn history in concrete learning situations and my focus is on the types of knowledge students understand, learn, develop and use in comparison with what they are expected to learn.  This is done based on three fundamental and well-established principles of learning. To examine what kinds of knowledge students need I use three main types of knowledge: declarative content knowledge (facts and concepts), procedural knowledge (knowledge about how to do things) and self-regulatory knowledge (knowledge about how to regulate our memory, thought and learning). I also use concepts and insights from systemic functional linguistics (SFL) in order to explain why the students use language and communicate the way they do. The thesis shows that history is challenging for young students. Young students have difficulties with complex and abstract concepts in history as they treat concepts as facts. Older, more competent, students use concepts on a more abstract level and use different kinds of linguistic resources when formulating explanations of higher complexity, more similar to the way explanations in the domain of history are commonly written. The youngest students and some of the older students lacked factual knowledge, concept knowledge, domain specific self-regulatory knowledge and linguistic resources. Declarative content knowledge and facts are more important and more difficult for young students to understand, develop, organize and learn than previous scholars have shown empirically. Students’ abilities to understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework and to organize and structure facts with the help of concepts at different level of abstraction (conceptual understanding) are crucial. Students also need linguistic resources, both lexical knowledge and knowledge of text structures. Language is crucial both in the process of acquiring knowledge and in the process of communication. In the learning process, teaching is crucial, since individual students’ potential to develop competence depend on the potential of the teacher to discover and engage their preconceptions and arrange for learning in a way that give students the kind of knowledge they need.

The writer has attempted to discuss the distinction between the necessary and the contingent. It begins with a criticism against the possibility for a so-called ‘a possible worlds realism’ to give a “philosophical explanation” of this distinction. The writer argues that this is impossible, since it requires that a notion of this distinction be already accepted (more precisely that the necessity of such a theory is already accepted). After this specific criticism, the writer intends to show that this is a more general problem that follows any explanation of the contingent/necessary distinction. The writer then discusses the counter-argument that the requirements placed on these explanations are set to high, therefore the writer shows in theory the problem can be solved and sketches a more specific way how to explain and show the basis for this distinction. / Författaren har avsett att diskutera distinktionen mellan det nödvändiga och det kontingent. Det börjar med en kritik mot möjligheten för en så kallad ’möjliga världars realism’ att ge en ”filosofisk förklaring” av denna distinktion. Författaren argumenterar för att detta är omöjligt, eftersom det kräver att en sådan distinktion redan är accepterad (mer specifikt att nödvändigheten av en sådan teori redan är accepterad). Efter denna specifika kriticism, så avser författaren visa att detta problem är generellt och att det följer alla försök att förklara den kontingenta/nödvändiga distinktionen. Författaren diskuterar sedan motargumentet att de krav som ställts på dessa förklaringar är för högt ställda, därför visar författaren hur problemet kan lösas i teorin och visar också en förenklad modell av en lösningsmetod.

Spontanabort i tidig graviditet hos kvinnor är den vanligaste typen av spontanabort och drabbar 10-35 % av alla gravida kvinnor. Syftet var att beskriva kvinnors upplevelser av omvårdnad i samband med spontanabort i tidig graviditet. Metoden som användes var systematisk litteraturstudie som totalt inkluderade nio studier. Datainsamlingen genomfördes i databaserna Cinahl, PubMed och PsycINFO. Studierna kvalitetsgranskades, och resultatet analyserades utifrån syftet. Materialet färgkodades utifrån funna mönster och tre kategorier växte fram. Kategorierna blev slutligen: kvinnors upplevelser av emotionellt stöd, kvinnors upplevelser av information och förklaring samt kvinnors upplevelser och behov av eftervård. Litteraturstudiens övervägande resultat innefattade upplevelser av otillfredsställelse med omvårdnaden bland de drabbade kvinnorna. Många kvinnor upplevde ett osympatiskt bemötande, bristande medicinsk förklaring av orsaken till spontanaborten samt en avsaknad av eftervård. Slutsatsen var att majoriteten av kvinnorna inte upplevde tillfredsställelse med det emotionella stödet, den medicinska förklaringen samt att de saknade eftervård i samband med spontanaborten i tidig graviditet. Ny forskning föreslås ur patientperspektivet med fokus på kvinnornas unika känslor och behov och ur personalperspektivet om bemötande och eftervård av kvinnor som nyligen varit med om spontanabort i tidig graviditet. / Early pregnancy loss occurs to 10-35% of all pregnant women and it is the most common type of pregnancy loss. The aim was to describe women’s experiences of nursing care in relation to early pregnancy loss. The used method was systematic literature review and resulted in totally used nine articles. The data collection was accomplished in the databases Cinahl, PubMed and PsycINFO. The articles quality was checked and the result was analyzed with regard to the aim. The material was coded in to colours from the found patterns and three categories took place. The categories were finally women’s experiences of emotional support, women’s experiences of information and explanation and women’s experiences and needs of aftercare. The greater part of the result included experiences of dissatisfaction with the nursing care among the women. Many women experienced an unsympathetic attitude, lack of medical explanation to the course and lack of aftercare. The conclusion was that the majority of the women didn’t experience satisfaction with the emotional support, the medical explanation and the aftercare, in relation to early pregnancy loss. Suggestion for new research is made, with focus on women’s unique feelings and needs, and also with focus on the nurses’ attitude and aftercare of these women.

<p>Spontanabort i tidig graviditet hos kvinnor är den vanligaste typen av spontanabort och drabbar 10-35 % av alla gravida kvinnor. Syftet var att beskriva kvinnors upplevelser av omvårdnad i samband med spontanabort i tidig graviditet. Metoden som användes var systematisk litteraturstudie som totalt inkluderade nio studier. Datainsamlingen genomfördes i databaserna Cinahl, PubMed och PsycINFO. Studierna kvalitetsgranskades, och resultatet analyserades utifrån syftet. Materialet färgkodades utifrån funna mönster och tre kategorier växte fram. Kategorierna blev slutligen: kvinnors upplevelser av emotionellt stöd, kvinnors upplevelser av information och förklaring samt kvinnors upplevelser och behov av eftervård. Litteraturstudiens övervägande resultat innefattade upplevelser av otillfredsställelse med omvårdnaden bland de drabbade kvinnorna. Många kvinnor upplevde ett osympatiskt bemötande, bristande medicinsk förklaring av orsaken till spontanaborten samt en avsaknad av eftervård. Slutsatsen var att majoriteten av kvinnorna inte upplevde tillfredsställelse med det emotionella stödet, den medicinska förklaringen samt att de saknade eftervård i samband med spontanaborten i tidig graviditet. Ny forskning föreslås ur patientperspektivet med fokus på kvinnornas unika känslor och behov och ur personalperspektivet om bemötande och eftervård av kvinnor som nyligen varit med om spontanabort i tidig graviditet.</p> / <p>Early pregnancy loss occurs to 10-35% of all pregnant women and it is the most common type of pregnancy loss. The aim was to describe women’s experiences of nursing care in relation to early pregnancy loss. The used method was systematic literature review and resulted in totally used nine articles. The data collection was accomplished in the databases Cinahl, PubMed and PsycINFO. The articles quality was checked and the result was analyzed with regard to the aim. The material was coded in to colours from the found patterns and three categories took place. The categories were finally women’s experiences of emotional support, women’s experiences of information and explanation and women’s experiences and needs of aftercare. The greater part of the result included experiences of dissatisfaction with the nursing care among the women. Many women experienced an unsympathetic attitude, lack of medical explanation to the course and lack of aftercare. The conclusion was that the majority of the women didn’t experience satisfaction with the emotional support, the medical explanation and the aftercare, in relation to early pregnancy loss. Suggestion for new research is made, with focus on women’s unique feelings and needs, and also with focus on the nurses’ attitude and aftercare of these women.</p>

The purpose of this essay is to analyze the ideological development of the former communist parties and the contemporary left-wing socialist parties of the Nordic countries. It is aimed at the two decades that have passed since the collaps of the Berlin wall and the parties at hand are; the Norwegian Sosialistisk Venstre, the Danish Socialistisk Folkeparti, the Swedish Vänsterpartiet and the Finnish Vasemmistoliitto. Since the 1960´s these parties have undergone major ideological changes with reference to a widening of their political agenda to an inclusion of democratic ideals as well as the new ideologies of feminism and ecologism. Thus reforming them into modern left-wing socialist parties at different times. The main hypothesis is formulated from the idea that there must be a connection between the startingpoint of reformation and the degree of modernism/traditionalism they show today. Furthermore, the study intends to determine how much they have changed and if there are any common features in the development. The method used consists of a quantitative approach with a minor qualitative streak and the material includes the four parties principalprograms from 1990 until today. In the quantative part I chose to count an amount of value-related words with connection to the four categories of socialism, feminism, ecologism and the democratic ideal. With the ideological refinement of Ball and Dagger as a frame of reference i chose a big amount of words, in which case the qualitative approach constituted as a failsafe in order to determine every words accuracy. The research shows that my original hypothesis is only partly correct. The degree of modernization seems to be depending on whereas the party was founded before or after the collapse of the Berlin wall. The fact that the three Scandinavian parties all show a positive modernization in comparison to their Finnish counterpart supports that. The study also reveals that the Finnish party, without consideration of modernism/traditionalism, changes the most during the period and the Danish party changes the least. The main feature of the Scandinavian parties is the decline of socialistic ideas in comparison to their Finnish equivalent.