Abductive reasoning is the process of finding the best explanation for a set of observations. The theory of abductive reasoning (TAR, Johnson & Krems, 2001) allows detailed process assumptions that were only partly tested in detail up until now. This thesis employs an artificial abductive reasoning task, the Black Box task, and eye tracking measures in order to gain insight into the process. The first part of this thesis aims at evaluating process measures based on eye tracking and using them in order to gain a better understanding of the processes postulated in TAR such as the construction of a situation model or retrieval of relevant information. The second part investigates the relationship between working memory and abductive reasoning by manipulating the amount of information stored in memory and examining the relationship between visual abductive reasoning and working memory skills. In a last part a perspective to the transferability of our results to everyday life tasks is given. The first study focuses on differentiating between processes that take place during the encoding and the evaluation of observation information by comparing eye movement measures. In the second study, we tested process assumptions such as the construction of a mental representation from TAR using memory indexing, an eye tracking method that makes it possible to trace the retrieval of explanations currently held in working memory. Gaze analysis revealed that participants encode the presented evidence (i.e., observations) together with possible explanations into memory. When new observations are presented, the previously presented evidence and explanations are retrieved. With the memory indexing method, we were able to assess the process of information retrieval in abductive reasoning, which was previously believed to be unobservable. The theory of abductive reasoning (TAR; Johnson & Krems, 2001) assumes that when information is presented sequentially, new information is integrated into a mental representation called a situation model, the central data structure on which all reasoning processes are based. Since working memory capacity is limited, the question arises how reasoning might change with the amount of information that has to be processed in memory. To answer this question, we conducted a third experimental study, in which we manipulated whether previous observation information and previously found explanations had to be retrieved from memory or were still present in the visual array. We analyzed individual ratings of difficulty as well as behavioral data and reasoning outcomes. Our results provide evidence that people experience differences in task difficulty when more information has to be retrieved from memory. This is also evident in changes in the mental representation as reflected by eye tracking measures. However, these differences are not evident in the reasoning outcome. These findings suggest that individuals construct their situation model from both information in memory as well as external memory stores. The complexity of the model depends on the task at hand: when memory demands are high, only relevant information is included. With this compensation strategy, people are able to achieve similar reasoning outcomes even when faced with more difficult tasks. The precise relationship between reasoning and working memory capacity remains largely opaque. Combining data of both studies from chapter 3 and 4, we firstly investigated if reasoning performance differs due to differences in working memory capacity. Secondly, using eye tracking, we explored the relationship between the facets of working memory and the process of visuospatial reasoning. Therefore both, a test for storage and processing, and content components (verbal-numerical/ spatial) of working memory as well as an intelligence measure, were engaged. Results show a clear relationship between reasoning accuracy, spatial storage and processing components as well as intelligence. Process measures suggest that high spatial working memory ability might lead to the use of strategies optimizing the content and complexity of the mental representation on which abductive reasoning is based. In a fifth study, we aimed to investigate whether there are also indicators for the mechanisms postulated by TAR in a task that is closer to real life reasoning. Therefore, we asked participants to solve 12 jigsaw puzzles whereby the abductive task was the identification of the motive presented on the puzzles. Thereby, the pieces of the puzzles posed as observation and hypotheses to the motive of the puzzle as explanations. As a process tracing measure, we used thinking aloud. Verbal protocols were recorded, transcripted and carefully coded according to the operators and explanation types postulated in TAR. We found evidence that participants use most of the operators with a likeliness that significantly lies above chance level. We also found evidence of the existence of the different explanation types. Eye movements were able to give insight in the interrelations between working memory, attention, and action. Therefore, this work contributes to understanding abductive reasoning, not only by testing the assumptions of TAR, but also by finding relations between memory, action and thought. The results do not only account for abductive reasoning in an artificial task but also in everyday life reasoning.:1 Introduction 1 1.1 Theories on Abductive Reasoning and Beyond 4 1.1.1 Theory of Abductive Reasoning 4 1.1.2 Other Theories 7 1.2 Reasoning, Working Memory, and Mental Representation 9 1.3 Process Tracing 11 1.4 An Artificial Abductive Task: The Black Box 12 1.5 Overview and Research Objectives 15 1.5.1 Differentiating between Encoding and Processing 15 1.5.2 Current Explanations in Memory 16 1.5.3 Information Stored in Memory 16 1.5.4 More than Storage of Information 17 1.5.5 In the Context of Everyday Life 18 1.5.6 Summary, Perspectives, and Conclusion 18 2 The Possibilities of Eye Tracking: Differentiating between Encoding and Processing 21 2.1 Abstract 22 2.2 Introduction 23 2.3 Method 26 2.3.1 Participants 26 2.3.2 Task and Apparatus 27 2.3.3 Procedure 28 2.3.4 Analysis 29 2.4 Results 30 2.5 Discussion 32 3 Tracing Current Explanations in Memory: A Process Analysis Based on Eye Tracking 37 3.1 Abstract 38 3.2 Introduction 39 3.2.1 Current Explanations of Abductive Reasoning 41 3.2.2 Tracing the Reasoning Process 44 3.2.3 Present Study 45 3.3 Method 48 3.3.1 Participants 49 3.3.2 Apparatus 49 3.3.3 Material 50 3.3.4 Procedure 53 3.4 Results 54 3.4.1 Performance 54 3.4.2 Gaze Analyses 55 3.4.3 Hypothesis 1: Information Stored in the Situation Model 57 3.4.4 Hypothesis 2: Different Types of Explanations—Concrete vs. Abstract 61 3.5 Discussion 67 3.5.1 Information Stored in the Situation Model 68 3.5.2 Concretely and Abstractly Explained Observations 68 3.5.3 TAR and Current Theories on Abductive Reasoning 70 3.5.4 Tracing Memory Processes 72 3.5.5 Conclusion 74 Appendix 3.1 75 Appendix 3.2 76 Appendix 3.3 77 Appendix 3.4 78 4 Information Stored in Memory Affects Abductive Reasoning 79 4.1 Abstract 80 4.2 Introduction 81 4.2.1 The Reasoning Process 82 4.2.2 Visual Attention 85 4.2.3 Research Objectives 86 4.2.4 This Study 87 4.2.5 Using Eye Movements as a Method to Assess Memory Retrieval 89 4.2.6 Hypotheses 89 4.3 Method 92 4.3.1 Participants 92 4.3.2 Apparatus 92 4.3.3 The Black Box Task 92 4.3.4 Procedure 95 4.3.5 Pairwise Comparisons 96 4.4 Results 96 4.4.1 Performance 96 4.4.2 Gaze Analysis 99 4.4.3 Hypothesis 1: Differences Experienced in Task Difficulty 101 4.4.4 Hypothesis 2: Elements of the Situation Model 102 4.4.5 Hypothesis 3: Integrative Solutions 105 4.5 Discussion 107 4.5.1 Differences Experienced in Task Difficulty 108 4.5.2 Elements of the Situation Model 108 4.5.3 Integrative Solutions 110 4.5.4 Summary 112 5 More than Storage of Information – What Working Memory Contributes to Visual Abductive Reasoning 113 5.1 Abstract 114 5.2 Introduction 115 5.2.1 Working memory 116 5.2.2 Relations between Abductive Reasoning Working Memory Capacity 118 5.2.3 Eye Movements as a Process Tracing Method 119 5.2.4 Abductive Reasoning Outcomes and Working Memory Ability. 120 5.2.5 Abductive Reasoning Processes and Working Memory Ability 121 5.3 Method 123 5.3.1 Participants 124 5.3.2 Apparatus 124 5.3.3 Material 125 5.3.4 Procedure 127 5.4 Results 128 5.4.1 Analysis 128 5.4.2 Abductive Reasoning Accuracy and Working Memory Ability 131 5.4.3 Abductive Reasoning Processes and Working Memory Ability 132 5.5 Discussion 135 5.5.1 The Interaction of Reasoning Accuracy and Memory Ability 135 5.5.2 The Interaction of the Process of Reasoning and Memory Ability 136 5.5.3 Conclusion 138 6 The Theory of Abductive Reasoning in the Context of Everyday Life 141 6.1 Abstract 142 6.2 Introduction 143 6.2.1 Abduction in “Real Life” 145 6.3 Method 146 6.3.1 Participants 146 6.3.2 Task 147 6.3.3 Material 148 6.3.4 Apparatus 148 6.3.5 Procedure 149 6.3.6 Coding system 150 6.4 Results 153 6.4.1 Analysis 153 6.4.2 Descriptive Data 153 6.3.3. Likeliness of Operator Use 155 6.5 Discussion 156 6.5.1 Operator Use 156 6.5.2 Explanation Types 157 6.5.3 Perspectives 158 7 Summary, Perspectives, and Conclusion 159 7.1 The Process of Abductive Reasoning 159 7.2 Contributions of other Theories 162 7.3 Eye Tracking and its Methodological Implications 164 7.4 Future Research and Applications 167 7.5 Conclusion 169 8 References 171 Curriculum Vitae 191 Publications 196

Der Beitrag behandelt direkte und indirekte kulturpolitische Einflussnahmen der Sozialistischen Einheitspartei Deutschlands auf die 800-Jahrfeier Leipzigs von 1965. Er geht auf die Frage ein, inwieweit Parteiideologen die Adaption städtischer Jubiläen in der DDR zur Staatsrepräsentation gelang und in welchem Verhältnis Anspruch und Realität bei der Erziehung ‚sozialistischer Menschen‘ standen.

Der Umgang mit Verfolgungserfahrung in verschiedenen Generationen ist Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit mit dem Thema »NS- Verfolgung als 'Ereignis' der Familiengeschichte«. Im Mittelpunkt der Untersuchung steht dabei die Frage der Relevanz der NS-Verfolgung für das Leben der Familienmitglieder und ihrem Verhältnis zur Gesellschaft.

Le mémoire de maîtrise présentée a comme but de faire ressortir la relation entre des rééditions des livres d’images de la République démocratique allemande (Bode 2002, Richter 2016) et l’ostalgie (Ahbe 2001/ 2013/2017/2018, Boyer 2006, Haage 2013), un phénomène de nostalgie de la RDA. À partir de la série Kindergeschichten der DDR (Beltz/KinderbuchVerlag; depuis 2009), une analyse paratextuelle (Genette 2001) a été effectuée. Les observations faites nous ont permis de distinguer les groupes commémoratifs affectés, de déterminer de quelle façon les réimpressions font référence à la mémoire collective de l’Allemagne de l’Est et de montrer de quelle manière cette mémoire influence les réimpressions. Avec cette contribution, l’auteure espère enrichir le domaine de recherche de la littérature enfantine germanophone. / This Master thesis explores the relationship between the reeditions of picture books from the German Democratic Republic (Bode 2002, Richter 2016) and “Ostalgie” (Ahbe 2001/ 2013/2017/2018; Boyer 2006; Haage 2013), a unique and continually evolving brand of collective memory specific to the GDR. Analyzing the paratexts (Genette 2001) of the series Kindergeschichten der DDR (Beltz/KinderbuchVerlag; since 2009), we could distinguish the affected commemorative groups, determine in which way the reeditions refer to the collective memory of East Germany, and show in which way this memory influences the reeditions. With this contribution, the author hopes to enhance the field of research on German children’s literature. / Das Ziel der vorliegenden Masterarbeit war es, den Zusammenhang zwischen Neuauflagen ehemaliger DDR-Bilderbücher (Bode 2002, Richter 2016) und Ostalgie (Ahbe 2001/2013/2017/2018, Boyer 2006, Haage 2013), als Phänomen einer spezifischen ostdeutschen Erinnerungskultur, herauszuarbeiten. Von besonderem Interesse war, wie Neuauflagen von DDR-Kinderbüchern an der (Re)Konstruktion von DDRErinnerung beteiligt sind und an welchen Stellen dies explizit als auch implizit deutlich wird. Anhand einer paratextuellen Analyse (Genette 2001) der Reihe Kindergeschichten der DDR (Beltz/KinderbuchVerlag: seit 2009) wurde nachgezeichnet, auf welche Weise und bei welchen Gruppen die Bilderbücher Erinnerungen auslösen (können) und wie diese Erinnerungen wiederum auf die aktuellen Wiederauflagen zurückwirken bzw. diese steuern. Die Autorin erhofft sich mit diesem Beitrag das Forschungsfeld der deutschsprachigen Kinderliteratur zu bereichern.

In the present study, we used mouse tracking to investigate two processes underlying prospective memory (PM) retrieval: First, we aimed to explore to what extent spontaneous retrieval of already completed PM intentions is supported by reflexive-associative and discrepancy-plus-search processes. Second, we aimed to disentangle whether costs to an ongoing task during the pursuit of a PM intention are associated with presumably resource-demanding monitoring processes or with a presumably resource-sparing strategic delay of ongoing-task responses. Our third aim was to explore the interaction of processes underlying costs to the ongoing task and processes of spontaneous retrieval. Our analyses replicated response-time patterns from previous studies indicating aftereffects of completed intentions and costs to ongoing-task performance, as well as increased aftereffects while pursuing a PM intention. Notably, based on our mouse-tracking analyses, we argue that aftereffects of completed intentions are best explained by a reflexive initiation of an already completed intention. If the completed intention is not performed in its entirety (i.e., no commission error), the reflexive initiation of the completed intention is followed by a subsequent movement correction that most likely represents a time-consuming response-verification process. Regarding performance costs in the ongoing task, our analyses suggest that actively pursuing a PM intention most likely leads to a strategic delay of ongoing activities. Lastly, we found that pursuing a novel PM task after intention completion exacerbated orienting responses to all deviant stimuli, exacerbated the readiness to initiate the completed intention reflexively, and substantially prolonged the response-verification process following this reflexive intention retrieval.

Die Selektion klonal expandierender Zellen mit einzigartigen, somatisch rekombinierten Anti-gen-Rezeptoren und die Langlebigkeit der daraus hervorgehenden Gedächtniszellen sind definierende Eigenschaften adaptiver Immunität. Dahingegen ist das angeborene Immunsystem da-rauf programmiert, mittels einer breiten Palette konservierter Rezeptoren möglichst schnell auf Pathogene zu reagieren und wird dabei auf Populationsebene epigenetisch geprägt. In dieser Arbeit möchte ich dieses Paradigma auf der Basis von Natürlichem Killer (NK) Zell-Gedächtnis an das humane Zytomegalievirus (HCMV) als Beispiel für Pathogen-spezifische Anpassung innerhalb des angeborenen Immunsystems herausfordern. Indem wir multiparametrische Einzel-zellanalysen zur Kartierung von ex vivo NK Zellen mit endogenen Barcodes in Form von soma-tischen Mutationen in mitochondrialer DNA (mtDNA) verknüpfen, können wir drastische klonale Expansionen adaptiver NK Zellen in HCMV+ Spendern nachweisen. NK-Zell-Klonotypen waren durch eine ihnen gemeinsame, inflammatorische Gedächtnissignatur mit AP1 Motiven gekennzeichnet, die eine Reihe einzigartiger Chromatin-Regionen mit Klon-spezifischer Zugänglichkeit überlagerte. NK-Zell-Klone wurden über einen Zeitraum von bis zu 19 Monaten stabil aufrechterhalten und behielten dabei ihre charakteristischen, Klon-spezifischen epigenetischen Signaturen, was die entscheidende Rolle klonaler Vererbung von Chromatin-Zugänglichkeit für die Prägung des epigenetischen Gedächtnis-Repertoires unterstreicht. Insgesamt identifiziert diese Arbeit zum ersten Mal klonale Expansion und Persistenz innerhalb des angeborenen Immunsystems im Menschen und deutet daraufhin, dass diese zentralen Mechanismen zur Ausbildung von immunologischem Gedächtnis evolutionär unabhängig von diversifizierten Antigen-Rezeptoren entstanden sind. / A hallmark of adaptive immunity is the clonal selection and expansion of cells with somatically diversified receptors and their long-term maintenance as memory cells. The innate immune system, in contrast, is wired to rapidly respond to pathogens via a broad set of germline-encoded receptors, acquiring epigenetic imprinting at the population level. The presented work challenges this paradigm by studying Natural Killer (NK) cell memory to human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV) infection as an example of pathogen-specific adaptation within the innate immune system. Leveraging single-cell multi-omic maps of ex vivo NK cells and somatic mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) mutations as endogenous barcodes, we reveal drastic clonal expansions of adaptive NK cells in HCMV+ individuals. NK cell clonotypes were characterized by a convergent inflammatory memory signature driven by AP1 transcription factor activity, superimposed on a private set of clone-specific accessible chromatin regions. Strikingly, NK cell clones were stably maintained in their specific epigenetic states for up to 19 months, revealing that clonal inheritance of chromatin accessibility shapes the epigenetic memory repertoire. Together, this work presents the first identification of clonal expansion and persistence within the human innate immune system, suggesting these central mechanisms of immune memory have evolved independently of antigen-receptor diversification.

Überarbeitete Fassung der Dissertation, Technische Universität Dresden, 2007

Der digitale Wandel prägt neue Formen der Erinnerungskultur, des Geschichtswissens und des Umgangs der Gesellschaft mit der Vergangenheit. In Deutschland liegen Schwerpunkte der Erinnerungskultur in der Aufarbeitung der Diktatur des Nationalsozialismus und der DDR-Diktatur. Zeitzeugen und auch viele Wissensträger der ersten beiden Nachkriegsgenerationen stehen nicht mehr zur Verfügung. Zugleich gibt es ein weiterhin großes Interesse an der Geschichte des Nationalsozialismus, wie eine Umfrage der Arolsen Archives unter den zwischen 1997 und 2012 Geborenen („Generation Z“) zeigt. Die Digital Natives wünschen sich jedoch deutlich mehr digitale Angebote zum Lernen und Mitwirken. Interaktive digitale Formen der Vermittlung von Geschichte sollten künftig auch weiteren Themenfeldern wie der Kolonialgeschichte und der Geschichte der Demokratie zugutekommen. In Zeiten der Corona-Pandemie haben Gedenkstätten und Gedächtniseinrichtungen (Archive, Bibliotheken, Museen), zivilgesellschaftliche Initiativen sowie Einrichtungen der historisch-politischen Bildung beeindruckende Fortschritte bei der digitalen Wissensproduktion und Wissensvermittlung erreicht. Der vorliegende Band zur Dresdner Tagung vom Oktober 2022 berichtet über Erfahrungen aus verschiedenen Perspektiven und gibt Impulse in Form von 18 Beiträgen zu diesen 7 Themen: • Erinnerungskultur als gesellschaftlicher Auftrag • Digitale Werkzeuge und Methoden der Erinnerungskultur • Digitalisierung historischer Zeitzeugnisse • Social Media und historisches Lernen • Gaming in der Erinnerungskultur • Partizipative Erinnerungskultur und Citizen Science • Erfahrungen von Citizen Scientists Die Beiträge aus Wissenschaft und Zivilgesellschaft plädieren für mehr (digitale) Kooperationen zwischen den unterschiedlichen Akteuren und Einrichtungen sowie für engere und vor allem nachhaltige Vernetzungen der vielen Einzelprojekte. Digitale Erinnerungsarbeit kann erstarrte Gedenkrituale neu beleben und die Sichtbarkeit des ehrenamtlichen Bürgerengagements verbessern. „Erinnerungskultur digital“ will auch ein Appell sein, mit breiter Geschichtsarbeit und Medienkompetenz gezielter Desinformation zu begegnen. Sie will zur historischen und politischen Bildung beitragen, um die vielfach angegriffene freiheitliche Demokratie aus der Mitte der Gesellschaft heraus zu schützen und zu stärken. / The new digital wave has led to a change in the way we look at memory culture, historical knowledge and society’s dealings with the past. In Germany the main emphasis in memory culture has been on examining the National Socialist and GDR dictatorships. We can no longer draw on people who have lived through these times or on other witnesses from both post-war generations. But there is still a considerable body of interest being shown in the history of National Socialism, as a survey conducted by the Arolsen Archive among people born between 1997 and 2012 (generation Z) shows. Digital Natives are asking for more and more material to provide information and generate interest. Historical study through interactive digital media may in future be used for other areas such as colonial history or the history of democracy. The COVID pandemic has seen memorials and institutions of memory culture (archives, libraries, museums) registering a notable upsurge in the generation of digital knowledge and its dissemination. The present volume from the Dresden conference in 2022 gives an account of experience from different perspectives and its contributions provide pointers in the following seven areas: • Memory culture in the service of society • Digital tools and the methods of memory culture • Digitisation of contemporary historical sources • Social media and historical acquisition • Gaming in memory culture • Participative memory culture and citizen science • Lessons drawn from memory culture The contributions from academics and sociologists call for more (digital) cooperation between the various bodies involved and for closer and more lasting cooperation between the various individual projects. The use of digital methods to promote memory can give new life to old ways of thinking and can draw renewed attention to voluntary involvement in ‚memory culture digital‘; it can confront fake information through intensified historical study and media know-how. Its aim is to strengthen historical and social awareness and to shore up our embattled freedom-loving democracy from the very centre of society itself. (Übersetzung: Roger Paulin)

Die flexible Anwendung von Wissen in neuen Alltagssituationen ist eine notwendige kognitive Fähigkeit. Bisherige Studien betonen die zentrale Rolle des Hippocampus beim Lernen und Verknüpfen neuer Informationen mit bereits vorhandenem Wissen. Die funktionelle Integrität des Hippocampus ändert sich jedoch im Laufe des Lebens bzw. wird durch neuropsychiatrische Erkrankungen häufig beeinflusst. Die betroffenen Personen müssen deswegen adaptive Strategien entwickeln, um behaviorale Ziele weiter zu erreichen. Daher befasst sich meine Doktorarbeit mit Adaptationsprozessen im sich entwickelnden Gehirn und im vollständig entwickelten Gehirn mit einer hippocampalen Dysfunktion. Diese Synopsis umfasst dazu drei Studien: (1) zu behavioralen Strategien im sich entwickelnden Gehirn, (2) zu behavioralen Strategien im vollständig entwickelten Gehirn nach einer Läsion und (3) zu strukturellen Veränderungen im vollständig entwickelten Gehirn nach einer Läsion. Studie 1 zeigt einen altersgebundenen Wechsel beim assoziativen Gedächtnis: Kinder, Jugendliche und junge Erwachsene benutzen verschiedene Gedächtnisstrategien beim Integrieren von Gedächtnisinhalten. Studie 2 zeigt, dass die beobachteten Gedächtnisbeeinträchtigungen bei Patienten mit rechtsseitigen hippocampalen Läsionen sich nicht alleine durch ein Defizit des assoziativen Gedächtnisses erklären lassen, sondern auf einen zusätzlichen hippocampalen Beitrag zur Gedächtnisintegration zurückzuführen sind. Studie 3 zeigt, dass sich postoperative Adaptationsprozesse auf struktureller Ebene in überraschend kurzer Zeit ereignen und dass die strukturelle Reorganisation nicht nur im Hippocampus, sondern auch in entfernteren Hirnregionen, die mit dem Hippocampus verbunden sind, stattfindet. Zusammenfassend zeigen die Ergebnisse der drei Studien, dass Adaptationsprozesse im sich entwickelnden Gehirn sowie bei Erwachsenen mit einer hippocampalen Dysfunktion sowohl auf der behavioralen als auch auf der strukturellen Ebene auftreten. / Applying knowledge flexibly to new situations is a cognitive faculty that is necessary in every-day life. Previous findings emphasise the crucial role the hippocampus plays in learning and linking new information with pre-existing knowledge. However, the functional integrity of the hippocampus changes over the lifespan and is frequently affected by neuropsychiatric disorders. The affected subjects must, therefore, develop adaptive strategies to achieve behavioural goals. Thus, my doctoral thesis deals with adaptation processes in the developing brain and in adult brains with a hippocampal dysfunction. This synopsis encompasses three studies on: (1) behavioural strategies in the developing brain, (2) behavioural strategies in the lesioned fully developed brain, and (3) structural changes in the lesioned fully developed brain. Study 1 suggests an age-related shift in the associative memory: Children, adolescents, and young adults use different memory strategies when integrating information. Study 2 suggests that the memory deficits observed in patients with right-sided hippocampal lesions are not merely a consequence of an impaired associative memory but rather result from an additional hippocampal contribution to the memory integration. Study 3 suggests that postoperative structural adaptation processes occur on a surprisingly short time-scale, and this structural reorganisation happens not only in the hippocampus but also in distant brain areas connected to the hippocampus. In conclusion, findings from these three studies show that adaptation processes in the developing brain and in adult brains with hippocampal dysfunction occur on both the behavioural and the structural level.

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