« [L]e commandement appartiendra, […] l'obéissance sera due, à un ordre qui n'a point de visage, dont on peut attendre, puisqu'il est impersonnel, qu'il interpellera sans passion et sera écouté sans colère »1219. C’est à ces fins que la procédure pénale et la pratique tentent d’évincer du jugement les émotions « passives » paralysant le raisonnement autonome du juge, ou certaines émotions « actives » non fondées sur un raisonnement logique. Mais parmi les émotions pourchassées, seules celles qui peuvent être effectivement contrôlées par leur matérialisation sont susceptibles d’être évitées et d’engager la responsabilité du juge. Au-surplus, il faut compter sur l’autodiscipline du juge en le sensibilisant au moyen de règles déontologiques. Toutefois, malgré la crainte de l’arbitraire que pourraient susciter les émotions, la bonne administration de la justice ne peut se faire nonobstant toute considération émotionnelle : le juge perçoit des émotions telles que les doutes méthodiques nécessaires au jugement et doit composer avec celles des tiers. Ainsi, au sein de l’espace laissé aux émotions, le magistrat tente de réguler celles qui survivent légitimement. Finalement renvoyé à sa condition d’être social, le juge ne peut échapper aux émotions qu’il a intégrées par sa sociabilisation. Il est le représentant des émotions sociales, restant ainsi en phase avec les valeurs qu’elles révèlent. La contribution de ces émotions à la décision est légitimée par leur représentativité. La légitimité se propage enfin aux décisions et à l’action du juge. / «Commandment shall belong […] and one shall obey to a faceless order, which may be expected, given its impersonality, to rule without passion and to be listened to without anger»1220. To reach such an aim, practice and criminal procedure try to erase from judgment «passive» emotions as well as some «active» ones that are not based on any logical thinking, since they paralyse the judge's autonomous reasoning. However, among such hounded emotions, only those which can be genuinely controlled by their materialisation are likely to be avoided and to involve the judge's responsibility. Furthermore, one has to take into account the judge's self-discipline by making him aware of these issues thanks to deontological rules. Nevertheless, and despite the fear of arbitrariness that emotions might trigger, the right administration of justice cannot cast aside every emotional consideration: a judge perceives emotions such as the methodological doubts that are necessary to his judgment; he must also take into account the ones felt by others. As a result, within the space left for emotions, a magistrate tries to regulate those which legitimately survive. A judge is ultimately brought back to his status of social being, he cannot escape the emotions which he has integrated through his socialization. He represents social emotions and stays in tune with the values they reveal. The contribution of these emotions to the final decision is legitimised by their representativeness. This legitimacy finally spreads out to the judge's decisions and actions.

Les États ont l’obligation juridique de protéger les personnes et leurs propriétés. Cette obligation juridique a pour fondements, les conventions internationales. Mais, les États ou autres personnes de droit public, se comportent comme des personnes de droit privé, ils contractent des contrats internationaux, des contrats d’État, the state contracts, commerciaux, d’investissements, de marchés publics, d’import-export, etc., et ignorent les attributs d'un État de droit à caractère universel. Lesdits États ne parviennent pas à respecter leurs engagements internationaux à savoir, la reconnaissance et la protection des droits fondamentaux ou le respect des principes judiciaires universels. La recherche du profit personnel ou la prise illégale d’intérêt des personnes de droit public, ne subordonne pas la protection des droits de l’Homme, de sorte que; les personnes faibles sont lésées, les personnes lésées sont des Civils non armés, des enfants, du fait d'acte internationalement illicite, les véritables coupables ne sont jamais inculpés. L’ingérence a son sens, mais le règlement pacifique semble mieux caractériser les principes judiciaires et de droit internationalement universel, lorsque la partie faible à caractère universel devient victime d'actes internationalement illicites ou des systèmes coloniaux ou néocoloniaux irréguliers de sorte que le mimétisme des institutions juridiques françaises par les États francophones d'Afrique, et le mimétisme des institutions juridiques américains par les États anglophones d'Afrique, perd son sens universellement réel. En effet, l’État de Droit est devenu une simple phrase, de sorte que le droit universel a un challenge. / The States have legal obligations to protect the persons and their properties. That legal obligation is based on the international Conventions. But The States or the officials behave like the private persons, they contract The State Contracts, etc.., and, Those States breach the attributes or the feature, or the characteristics, of the rule of law of Universal Nature. they fail to perform the universal law or the universal principles. To seek personal profit do not surbordinate the protection of the Human Rights. Thus, the weak people have their universal law violate, those who are not strong, children and unarmed civilians are the victims of the internationally wrongful act or the internationally wrongful act of the state, and the real authors are never accused. The interference has its meaning in the rule of law, but the peaceful settlement of conflicts seems to be better characterize the judicial principles and international law, when weak people with an universal character becomes victim of internationally wrongful acts or victims of the irregular colonial or neocolonial systems, so the mimicry of French legal institutions by the French-speaking States of Africa, or the mimicry of American legal institutions by the English-speaking States of Africa, is the mimicry that loses its universally real meaning. Indeed, the rule of law has become a simple sentence, so that the universal right has a challenge.

L’impartialité constitue une condition et un élément essentiels du concept de justice ; mais en quoi consiste-t-elle précisément ? Les théories de justice contemporaines tendent à l’aborder en termes strictement politiques, en laissant de côté ou en limitant ses aspects épistémologiques et moraux. Ce travail se propose d’exposer, d’analyser et de discuter de manière critique la manière dont Thomas Nagel aborde à nouveaux frais, à partir de sa thèse du conflit des perspectives, l’idée d’impartialité en termes à la fois épistémologiques, moraux et politiques. L’impartialité est en effet d’abord une affaire de jugement objectif et rationnel ; mais un tel jugement doit aussi tenir compte de la division des points de vue personnels et impersonnels en nous, ainsi que du pluralisme des raisons et des valeurs qu’elle engendre. Le concept d’impartialité requiert alors un examen attentif de cette division des perspectives, et des types ou degrés d’objectivité qui seraient possibles dans les débats tant moraux que politiques. Peut-on dégager des critères, des conditions, une méthode de l’impartialité ? Comment la garantir, au niveau moral mais aussi en termes politiques et distributifs ? Et quels principes, raisons ou valeurs une justice pleinement impartiale peut-elle avancer et promouvoir de manière cohérente et légitime ? À travers notre examen des thèses, originales et hybrides, de Thomas Nagel, nous défendons la nécessité de remonter à ces conditions et questions fondamentales afin d’élaborer une conception satisfaisante et réaliste de la justice impartiale. Une telle conception prend avec Nagel un visage libéral, démocratique, pluraliste et fortement égalitarien, qui est certes proche des théorisations de Rawls ou Scanlon, mais est façonné à partir de thèses originales et hybrides offrant des alternatives novatrices. Ces thèses, affinées et modifiées par Nagel au cours des années et souvent non encore traduites en français, n’avaient encore pas fait l’objet d’une étude francophone et spécialisée dans les débats contemporains autour des théorisations de la justice. Dans notre travail, nous en analysons les facettes épistémologiques, métaéthiques, éthiques, politiques et économiques, en mettant en perspective les conceptions de Nagel par rapport à celles des penseurs modernes et contemporains dont il se démarque, et en dégageant la manière dont ces thèses se combinent, se complètent, se limitent respectivement aussi parfois. À partir de l’analyse de ces différentes thèses, nous avançons des éléments de discussion critique et des prolongements du concept d’impartialité qui en résulte, ainsi que du type de justice sociale – libérale, pluraliste, fortement égalitarienne – qu’il porte. Nous défendons la perspective réaliste et rationaliste de Nagel, son refus de toute forme d’utopie et sa conception plurielle, hybride mais exigeante de l’impartialité, tout en prenant au sérieux les difficultés que ces thèses soulèvent et les points de blocage auxquels Nagel se heurte. Mais nous considérons que ces difficultés peuvent trouver, dans les options envisagées par Nagel et dans les éléments de critique que nous avançons dans notre thèse, des solutions ou du moins des pistes de résolution qui constituent autant de perspectives stimulantes pour prolonger l’effort philosophique au sujet de la justice, de l’impartialité et de l’équité, dans et pour le monde d’aujourd’hui. / Impartiality is an essential condition and element of the concept of justice. But what exactly is impartiality in itself? Contemporary theories of justice tend to approach it in strictly political terms, and to leave aside or to limit its epistemological and moral aspects. This work offers to expose, analyse and critically discuss the way Thomas Nagel, from his conception of the conflict of perspectives, renews the approach to the idea of impartiality in epistemological, moral and political terms. Indeed impartiality is first a matter of objective and rational judgment; but such a judgement must also take into account the division of personal and impersonal points of view within us, as well as the pluralism of reasons and values it creates. The concept of impartiality then requires a scrutiny of this division of perspectives, and of the types or degrees of objectivity that could be possible in both moral and political debates. Can we determine impartiality’s criteria, conditions or method? How are we to guarantee it, morally but also politically and distributively? Which principles, reasons or values can a fully impartial justice consistently and legitimately advance or promote? Through our examination of Thomas Nagel’s original and hybrid conceptions, we defend the necessity of going back to these fundamental conditions and questions in order to elaborate a satisfying and realistic conception of impartial justice. Such a conception takes in Nagel’s approach a liberal, democratic, pluralistic and strongly egalitarian shape. It is surely close to Rawls’ or Scanlon’s theorizations of justice, but it is based on original and hybrid theses that offer innovative alternatives. These theses, which Nagel refined and modified over years and which, for most of them, have not yet been translated into French, had not until then been studied in France with a specialized focus on contemporary debates around theories of justice. In our work, we analyse their epistemological, metaethical, ethical, political and economic aspects, while putting into perspective Nagel’s conceptions in relation to those of modern and contemporary thinkers whom he stands out. We also show and explain how his theses combine, complete but also sometimes limit each other. With this analyse, we offer elements of critical discussion and possible extensions of the concept impartiality hence built, as well as of the type of social justice – liberal, pluralist, strongly egalitarian – that it carries. We defend the realist and rationalist perspective of Nagel, his refusal of any form of utopia and his plural, hybrid but demanding conception of impartiality. We also take seriously the difficulties his theses raise and the blockings Nagel faces. But we consider that these difficulties can find, in the options he explores and in the critical elements we suggest in our dissertation, solutions or at least possible resolutions that constitute as many stimulating perspectives to pursue the philosophical effort about justice, impartiality and equity, within and for our actual world.

This study investigated the perceptions of election stakeholders with regard to the management of the 2011 electoral processes in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). The involvement of civil society organizations, electoral experts and academia, including party agents as domestic observers and stakeholders in Congolese electoral processes, is crucial as they help electoral and participatory democracy to take root in the DRC. This study was underpinned by political trust, political support and neopatrimonial theories. Furthermore, a mixed methods research design was used in order to understand the perceptions of stakeholders on the management of the 2011 electoral processes in the DRC. The findings of the study showed that stakeholders‟ perceptions on the management of the 2011 electoral processes in the DRC were driven by both internal and external factors pertaining to the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) that have the potential to affect the electoral processes as well as the level of trust in the INEC and other institutions involved in the electoral processes. / Political Sciences / M.A. (Politics)

[pt] A tese apresentada propõe a investigação do problema da baixa presença de mulheres nos tribunais superiores brasileiros. A hipótese levantada é a de que a pequena diversidade de gênero nos altos postos do Judiciário brasileiro ocorre em detrimento do objetivo de imparcialidade sustentado por essa função estatal em sociedades democráticas. A metodologia adotada no desenvolvimento do trabalho pode ser dividida em três partes. Em um primeiro momento, é empreendida uma investigação dogmática das normas constitucionais, leis e regulamentos internos dos órgãos responsáveis pelo processo de seleção de magistrados no Brasil. Na segunda etapa, passou-se ao exame, inspirado na análise do discurso, de textos do processo de escolha dos magistrados para o Supremo Tribunal Federal. Ambos os métodos conduziram à verificação do problema da baixa presença de mulheres e dos constrangimentos de gênero existentes para se chegar até os tribunais superiores brasileiros. Permitiram, também, a compreensão da importância atual do gênero como critério de diferenciação social e, consequentemente, da validade desse parâmetro para a investigação proposta. Na terceira parte, empreendeu-se revisão teórico-bibliográfica interdisciplinar sobre o tema e, de forma mais ampla, sobre a desigual inclusão de grupos sociais subalternos às esferas de poder. A análise permitiu a identificação das contribuições já trazidas à discussão e das lacunas que permanecem sem ser apuradas, tornando útil o seu desenvolvimento no trabalho. O exame também conduziu à identificação de categorias analíticas válidas para a análise a ser empreendida, por informarem a necessidade de que os sujeitos ocupem iguais posições de poder na sociedade. Segue-se daí a proposição do marco teórico da standpoint theory e a elaboração do argumento da tese. O argumento proposto é o de que a diversidade, em especial, a inclusão das mulheres no Judiciário é requisito para a imparcialidade judicial, instituto que será analisado a partir do direito processual. Em outras palavras, propõe-se que a imparcialidade judicial depende da diversidade do Poder Judiciário. O reconhecimento, ditado pela standpoint theory, da existência de perspectivas fundadas na posição social dos indivíduos e da necessidade de que elas, quando socialmente relevantes, sejam veiculadas para a construção de objetividades mais fortes vai, ao mesmo tempo, ao encontro dos postulados democráticos, porque amplia a participação e a inclusão social em sociedades plurais, e ao encontro da garantia de imparcialidade, porque favorece a construção plural do conhecimento. Apresento, ao final, o conceito de imparcialidade forte, que é a consequência da aplicação da standpoint theory a um Poder Judiciário democrático e que justifica a necessidade de políticas públicas para a composição paritária de gênero nos tribunais superiores brasileiros. / [en] The presented thesis investigates the problem of the under-representation of women in Brazilian superior courts. The hypothesis is that the absence of gender diversity damages judicial impartiality. The research methodology used has three stages. Firstly, a rigorous investigation of constitutional norms, laws and internal regulations of the judicial selection process of Brazil. Secondly, with inspiration on discourse analysis, an exam of texts on the selection process for electing Superior Court judges. Both methods verify the low presence of women and the gender constraints to reach Brazilian superior courts. The methodologies also demonstrate the current importance of gender as a social differentiation criterion and hence, the current importance of this parameter for the proposed research. The third stage is an interdisciplinary theoretical review on the subject and, more broadly, on the unequal representation of subaltern social groups in positions of power. The analysis identify the contributions already brought to discussion and the gaps that remained, validating the work development. The review also discerns analytical categories valid for the analysis, demonstrating the need for subjects to occupy equal positions in society. The proposed argument is that diversity, in particular women s inclusion in the Judiciary, is prerequisite for judicial impartiality, in the light of procedural law. In other words, the argument is that judicial impartiality depends on the diversity of the Judiciary. The recognition of standpoints based on the social position of individuals and the need for them, when socially relevant, to be conveyed to build stronger objectivities meet democratic postulates. This expands participation and social inclusion in plural societies and it is essential to assure judicial impartiality and the favoring of the plural construction of knowledge. Conclusions present the concept of strong impartiality, which is the result of the application of standpoint theory to a democratic Judiciary and justifies equal gender representation in public policies in Brazilian superior courts.

The study has the interest to investigate the existing values in science and analyze the possibility of promotion of ethics in the scientific pratices in the contemporaneity. The basis for this analysis is on Hugh Lacey s studies on the search for an epistemological model based on the adequacy of present values in scientific practices to social projection and human needs. This analysis shows that to have a better understanding of science and its objective, we should distinguish the values, the moments and the decisive strategies for the development of science. The Lacey s proposed has two articulations a distinction of values (cognitive and noncognitive) and a distinguish of the proper times of scientific practice that would enable a better explanation and justification of the problem of ―value-free science‖. To Lacey, there are three moments of scientific activity that allow us to analyse the performance of values: the moment M1, to adopt ways and strategies for research; the moment M2, to accept theories; and the moment M3, to apply scientific knowledge. The distinction of values is needed to support the view that scientific knowledge can be impartial and still serve as social values. Already, the distinction of moments of scientific activity allows the author to indicate the suitable place for investigating social influences in the research (at the moments M1 and M3). We realize that the modern tradition of science used a materialist understanding that selected restricted and one-dimensional strategies of research, overly linked to noncongnitive values of control of natural objects that privilege capitalists values, that, almost always, do not guarantee the enjoyment of other values essential for the human welfare. Therefore, this discussion suggests the importance of rethink the present values in science for a scientific activity that balances the ideal of the understanding of the world, together with the ability to generate useful Technologies for the flourishing of humanity. / O estudo tem por interesse investigar os valores existentes na ciência e analisar a possibilidade da promoção de uma prática científica ética na contemporaneidade. A base para essa análise fundamenta-se nos estudos de Hugh Lacey sobre a busca de um modelo epistemológico pautado na adequação de valores presentes nas práticas científicas às projeções sociais e necessidades humanas. Tal análise aponta que para termos uma melhor compreensão da ciência e do seu objetivo devemos distinguir tanto os valores quanto os momentos e as estratégias decisivas para o desenvolvimento da ciência. A proposta de Lacey apresenta duas articulações - uma distinção dos valores (cognitivos e não cognitivos); e uma distinção dos devidos momentos da prática científica que possibilitariam uma melhor explanação e justificação do problema da ―ciência livre de valores‖. Para Lacey há três momentos da atividade científica que nos permitem analisar a atuação dos valores: o momento M1, de adotar caminhos e estratégias para a pesquisa; o momento M2, de aceitar teorias e; o momento M3, de aplicar o conhecimento científico. A distinção dos valores é necessária para apoiar a visão de que o conhecimento científico pode ser imparcial e ainda se servir de valores sociais. Já a distinção dos momentos da atividade científica permite ao autor indicar o local adequado para se investigar influências sociais no interior das pesquisas (nos momentos M1 e M3). Perceberemos que a tradição moderna de ciência se utilizou de um entendimento materialista que selecionou estratégias de pesquisa restritas e unidimensionais, exageradamente ligadas a valores não cognitivos de controle dos objetos naturais que acabam por privilegiar valores capitalistas que, quase sempre, não garantem a apreciação de estratégias múltiplas de pesquisa e de outros valores essenciais para o bem-estar humano. Por isso esta reflexão propõe a importância de repensarmos os valores presentes na ciência para almejarmos uma atividade científica que equilibre o ideal de entendimento do mundo juntamente à capacidade de gerar tecnologias úteis ao florescimento da humanidade. / Mestre em Filosofia

Ce présent travail a pour vocation de fournir une approche multidisciplinaire – historique, socio-politique, économique, et psychologique – pour comprendre l’intérêt général de la gestion constructive de conflit, et en particulier les opportunités liées à la méthode de la médiation. La thèse reflète le chemin parcouru - de la déconstruction à la reconstruction du sujet – débutant par une analyse théorique (les origines, les spécificités, les différences avec d’autres méthodes, les valeurs et principes), passant par une prise en considération des phénomènes individuels et collectifs inhérents au conflit et à sa gestion (les niveaux de conflit, les dimensions de la gestion, les fondements psychologiques individuels, les opportunités d’une démarche intégrative mais aussi les limites et risques liés à la méthode de médiation). Le travail tient également compte de l’évolution personnelle du chercheur, de sa pratique de médiateur, des échanges avec d'autres professionnels ainsi que ses constats de réalisabilité (conseils de mise en pratique, organisation logistique, outils concrets pour les différentes phases, et restitution des étapes clés d’un cas pratique).Mots clés : accompagnement, arbitrage, compréhension mutuelle, confidentialité, consensus, dialoguer, doubler, écoute active, empathie, facilitation de communication, gestion de conflit effective et constructive, impartialité, médiation, méthodes alternatives de règlement de conflit, modération, négociation intégrative, prévention/traitement auto-responsable de futures conflits, résolution créative de problèmes, solutions « pareto optimales », rétablissement de la paix, gestion des processus, rapprochement, réconciliation, science décisionnelle, supervision, zone d’accords possibles / This work aims to provide a multidisciplinary approach - historical, socio-political, economic, and psychological - to understand the general interest of constructive conflict management, and in particular the opportunities related to the method of mediation. The thesis reflects the path taken - from deconstruction to reconstruction of the subject - beginning with a theoretical analysis (origins, specificities, differences with other methods, values and principles) and considering the individual and collective phenomena inherent to each conflict and its management (levels of conflict, management dimensions, individual psychological foundations, opportunities of integrative bargaining, but also the limits and risks associated with the method of mediation). The present work also takes into account the personal evolution of the researcher, her practice as a mediator, exchanges with other professionals on this behalf and her personal findings of feasibility (practical advice, logistical organization, concrete tools for the various phases, and the restitution of the key steps of a practical case). Key words : active listening, alternative dispute resolution, arbitrary, communication facilitation, conciliation, confidentiality, consensus, constructive and effective conflict management, creative problem-solving, decision science, dialogue, empathy training, empowerment, Harvard negotiation model, impartiality, integrative bargaining, looping, mediative solutions, moderation, negotiation, “pareto optimal” solutions, peacemaking, process management, reconciliation, reframing, settlements, supervision, therapy, understanding, zone of possible agreements

The degradation of the ecological and social systems has largely resulted from human activities that deplete natural resources and undermine human needs in society. Traditional business culture, driven mainly by profit maximization, is a factor that has worsened this sustainability challenge. Social enterprises (SEs) are a form of business that hold the potential to help make the transition towards a sustainable society. The purpose of this study is two-fold. First, it explores SE contributions to creating a sustainable social system. Second, it examines how SEs exhibit the dimensions of trustworthiness, leading to trusting relationships in society. Social sustainability principles (SSPs) define social sustainability and are drawn from the Framework for Strategic Sustainable Development. They are used as a foundation for identifying SE contributions. The researchers draw on experiences from social entrepreneurs and experts in the field of social entrepreneurship. SEs contribute at two levels: the individual level and the societal level. They break down barriers to the SSPs and provide opportunities to individuals with respect to the five principles. SEs operate based on a culture of impartiality and create opportunities for meaning for individuals in their target groups. They consistently take leaps of faith, believing in the trustworthiness of those who are otherwise deemed untrustworthy.

Le conflit d'intérêts est un sujet passionnant notamment en raison de son omniprésence dans l'actualité. Approximative, l'expression empruntée au magma lexical des politiciens et juristes anglo-américains s'est récemment diffusée en France dans le monde des affaires et aussitôt reprise par le jargon médiatique pour désigner des éventuelles interférences de l'intérêt privé dans l'exercice de pouvoirs de nature privée ou publique. Il n'existe en l'état actuel du droit positif français aucune réglementation spécifique de ces « conflits d'intérêts », pas plus en droit privé qu'en droit public, alors même qu'on se préoccupe de leur prévention tandis que leur sanction relève de qualifications plus générales. Il convient donc de s'interroger sur la définition et la valeur opératoire de cette notion et le régime juridique qui pourrait lui être réservé, ce que l'on se propose d'entreprendre dans la sphère du droit privé et par préférence dans le champ de l'arbitrage commercial, particulièrement exposé aux appétits hégémoniques des droits anglo-américains. / Conflict of Interests is a fascinated subject due to its pervasiveness in the economic life. This approximated expression, borrowed from the politicians and Anglo-American lawyers' jargon, has recently spread into the French business world and was taken up by the media to designate the interferences of private interest in the exercise of powers of private or public nature. In the current state of French Law, there is no specific rule governing conflicts of interests, neither in Private Law, nor in Public Law. Indeed, politicians and scholars paradoxically only focus on their prevention, whereas their sanctions fall within the scope of broader notions. The aim of this research is to lay down the definition, the operative value and the regime of conflict of interests. The scope of this research shall be, within Private Law, Commercial Arbitration Law, which is particularly exposed to the hegemony of Anglo-American laws.

Los medios de comunicación conforman una pieza indispensable en el desarrollo de la opinión pública en las campañas presidenciales. La presente investigación se rige sobre los factores que perjudican la imparcialidad en el ejercicio profesional de la prensa en las entrevistas durante el proceso de las campañas políticas. Esto con la finalidad de identificar cómo la prensa logra construir la realidad en base a los siguientes conceptos: Imparcialidad en la información periodística, periodismo especializado, entrevista periodística y periodismo en campañas electorales. / The mass media are an indispensable piece in the development of public opinion in presidential campaigns. This research is governed by the problem of the factors that harm the existence of impartiality in the professional exercise of the press in interviews during the political campaign process. This in order to identify how the press manages to build reality based on the following concepts: Impartiality in journalistic information, specialized journalism, journalistic interview and journalism in electoral campaigns. / Trabajo de investigación