Cette thèse aborde la reformulation dans des discussions entre jeunes Libanais francophones. Après une approche lexicologique de formuler/reformuler/reformulation qui vise à faire émerger leurs spécificités par rapport à dire/redire, énoncer/réénoncer, etc., et une tentative de trouver une unité à l’objet discursif qu’est la reformulation, une double approche des reformulations du corpus est engagée. La première, linguistique, dresse une typologie de ce phénomène dans le corpus. Se voulant globale, elle prend en compte des critères linguistiques (phonologique, sémantique, lexical, morphosyntaxiques) et d’autres qui relèvent de la dimension interactive dans laquelle s’inscrivent les reformulations (instances, initiation et rôle de la reformulation dans le discours). Le principal apport de cette approche qualitative et quantitative est d’avoir montré l’aspect central de la morphosyntaxe dans le marquage des reformulations nuançant ainsi les approches du phénomène à travers les marqueurs lexicaux et les connecteurs. La deuxième approche se centre sur les locuteurs et sur leur statut de non-natifs en s’interrogeant sur le potentiel des reformulations à nous renseigner sur leur compétence de communication. De plus, le travail se penche sur des phénomènes de contacts de langues dans le cadre de l’activité reformulatoire des locuteurs dans le corpus. Cette thèse se consacre enfin, dans le cadre théorique de la grammaticalisation/pragmaticalisation, à l’étude d’un marqueur discursif du dialecte libanais «jæʕne» qui fait irruption dans le discours des locuteurs et témoigne, entre autres emplois, de celui de marqueur de reformulation. Les emplois de jæʕne sont considérés aussi comme des phénomènes de contacts de langue d’une part dans le cadre d’alternance codique et d’autre part, à travers des calques opérés par les locuteurs sur c’est-à-dire. / This PhD thesis approaches reformulation in conversations between young francophone Lebanese. It starts with a lexicological approach of the words formulate/reformulate/reformulation in order to emphasize their differences with say/say again, utter/utter again and goes on with a deep analysis of reformulation as a discursive object, followed by a two-fold approach of the occurrences in the corpus. The first approach is a linguistic one and also deals with the interactional dimension of reformulations. Quantitative and qualitative analyses emphasize the role of morphosyntax in marking reformulations, completing the approaches based on discourse markers and connectives. The second approach, focusing on the speakers, takes into account their non-native speaker status. We are questioning here the way in which reformulations can provide information about their communicative competence. Reformulation is seen as a communicative strategy they use in order to solve communication problems. Our work ends with the analysis of a Lebanese French discourse marker, jæʕne, used by the speakers to indicate reformulation (among other things). The first part of the analysis draws a typology of all its uses within the grammaticalization/pragmaticalization framework while the second one studies it as a language contact phenomenon.

Cette thèse est bâtie selon deux axes, sociolinguistique et didactique, en particulier autour des notions de langues en contact, répertoire verbal (linguistic repertoire), méthode et méthodologie, à la suite d’une expérience de professeur de chinois en France et de FLE à Taiwan. Elle analyse le contexte des langues à Taiwan, puis celui des cours de français à Taiwan (2007) où l’on utilise systématiquement des manuels généralistes édités en France. Des chercheurs (Beacco & Lehmann…) ont constaté que l’ « exportation » de ces méthodes généralistes et les approches qu’elles proposent ne conviennent pas forcément aux apprenants asiatiques. Ainsi, un premier volet en didactique des langues est ouvert dans la présente recherche. En effet, en formation universitaire les méthodes des manuels de FLE ne seraient que partiellement compatibles avec le public sinophone : elles leur montrent ce que sont les valeurs et pratiques occidentales, mais ne leur permettent pas forcément de bien se situer ni de s’approprier langue et culture pour leur futur métier. Il faut donc tout particulièrement adapter la méthodologie et les pratiques de classe. Dans le cadre de cette recherche, des enquêtes sociolinguistique et didactique ont été effectuées auprès de professeurs et d’étudiants de français, dans dix universités taiwanaises. Cette thèse permet de montrer de quelle façon l’agir professoral et la culture éducative des enseignants ont des conséquences sur la manière dont les manuels de FLE sont exploités ; et de constater que les apprenants taiwanais ont développé des modes d’apprentissage spécifiques liées à leur scolarisation ainsi qu’à la façon dont ils ont appris le mandarin, provoquant ainsi une approche particulière des manuels de FLE et des représentations singulières ainsi que des utilisations spécifiques. Le volet sociolinguistique de la thèse permet aussi de remarquer que le répertoire plurilingue des enseignants et des apprenants a un rôle central dans la salle de classe puisqu’il favorise un travail de comparaison des langues entre elles. A partir des résultats obtenus, cette recherche propose des activités de classe ainsi que des éléments de réflexions en sociolinguistique et en didactique des langues et des cultures / This PhD dissertation is mainly based on sociolinguistic and didactic approaches, especially around certain notions such as language contact, linguistic repertoire, method and methodology, along with my teaching experience gathered over the years as a Chinese teacher in France as a French professor in Taiwan. The study analyses the language use in the social context of Taiwan, and also the environment of the French language teaching in Taiwan (2007) where universal textbooks edited in France are systematically used to teach the language. Researchers (Beacco & Lehmann…) have come to the conclusion that the “universalist” approach proposed in the French textbooks is not always suitable for Asian learners. Thus, this research opens a first constituent in didactics. Those approaches provided by the “French Language for Foreigners” training do assure certain acquisition of the European values, culture and methologies; however, they do not necessarily help the learners to adapt these norms to their future profession. Therefore, it’s crucial to consider some necessary adaptations regarding the methodology and the teaching methods in foreign language educational settings. The research uses data gathered from the teachers and students from ten universities across Taiwan who have participated in an interview conducted in sociolinguistic and didactic approach. This dissertation demonstrates how the teaching methodology and the educational culture in Taiwan can impact on the application of the teaching material designed by “French Language for Foreigners”. Furthermore, this entry also discusses how Taiwanese learners have developed a specific learning method linked to their own educational settings as well as the way they learn Mandarin at school, which explores the findings of their special approach to the textbooks of French exposed to them.In addition, it also exhibits the unique representation and specific application of those textbooks towards the local variants in Taiwan. The sociolinguistic branch of this study further indicates that the plurilingual repertoire of both teachers and students in the classroom plays a key role in language teaching, since it helps to draw the comparison between different languages. Finally, based on the results of our study, this PhD dissertation proposes to incorporate certain class activities; it also contributes some significant insights to the teaching and the research in sociolinguistic and didactic fields

A presente tese tem como objetivo descrever o falar nipo-brasileiro em cinco comunidades do Distrito Federal com vistas à construção do Esboço do Atlas do Falar dos Nipo-Brasileiros do Distrito Federal: aspecto semântico-lexical. O contato de línguas (português versus japonês), cada vez mais estreito, acarreta mudanças expressivas no cenário linguístico e se manifesta na fala dos nipo-brasileiros, cuja situação evidencia o entrelaçamento de duas línguas que se aliam e se alinham, configurando uma nova forma de uso que denominamos variedade nipobrasileira, objeto desta pesquisa. Essa fala é sustentada pela história linguística de (i)migrantes e seus descendentes e percorre seu curso natural de língua em constante movimento, criando, assim, situações linguísticas próprias. Diante deste fato, faz-se necessário resgatar e registrar esse uso, uma vez que a fala simboliza, em parte, a identidade linguística deste grupo social. A presente tese busca registrar e descrever a variedade nipobrasileira quanto ao componente semântico-lexical. Para a coleta de dados recorre-se a procedimentos metodológicos da Geolinguística. Selecionam-se cinco comunidades, pontos da pesquisa Brasília; Brazlândia; Núcleo Bandeirante; Taguatinga e Vargem Bonita com base não apenas em fatores históricos relacionados à (i)migração japonesa no Planalto Central, como também na importância destas no cenário econômico e no desenvolvimento do Distrito Federal. A seguir, aplica-se um instrumento de pesquisa denominado Questionário Semântico-Lexical Visual a dez sujeitos nipo-brasileiros bilíngues que foram subdivididos em duas faixas etárias de 51 a 65 e 66 anos em diante , todos do sexo/gênero feminino e pertencentes à segunda geração (nissei). As respostas registradas nas entrevistas permitem a elaboração de um banco de dados semântico-lexicais. Posteriormente, os dados são descritos e documentados em 41 cartogramas linguísticos, que visam à apresentação da frequência e distribuição dos dados semântico-lexicais em japonês e português e/ou português-japonês nos pontos pesquisados. A base teórica ancora-se na Sociolinguística, com enfoque no bilinguismo, mais especificamente no contato de línguas e nos fenômenos que derivam desse processo: o empréstimo lexical e a mudança de código. Recorre-se aos estudos, entre outros, de Grosjean, Thomason e Kaufman e Gumperz. Dada a natureza desta pesquisa, contemplamse igualmente os estudos de Dialetologia/Geolinguística, com destaque para os trabalhos de Chambers e Trudgill, Mase e Onishi. Ao final, verifica-se que a análise dos dados possibilita não somente a descrição do falar nipo-brasileiro como também a elaboração do esboço do atlas desse falar. As ocorrências semântico-lexicais apresentadas na pesquisa apontam para a configuração de uma variedade nipo-brasileira nos pontos pesquisados, como também constituem um retrato parcial desse falar. / This thesis aims to describe the Japanese-Brazilian speaking in five communities of the Distrito Federal in order to construct an Atlas Sketch of the Distrito Federal Japanese- Brazilian Speaking. The language contact (Portuguese vs. Japanese), increasingly narrow, entails significant changes in the linguistic scene and manifests itself in the Japanese- Brazilians speaking, whose situation highlights the locking of two languages that ally and align, setting up in a new way of use that we call Japanese-Brazilian variety, object of this research. This speaking is sustained by the (i)migrants and their descendants linguist history and runs its natural course of a language in constant motion, thus creating proper language situations. Given this fact, it is necessary to rescue and register, this usage, once the speech symbolizes, partly, the linguistic identity of this social group. This thesis seeks to register and describe the Japanese-Brazilian variety as to the semantic-lexical components. The Geolinguistic methodological procedures were resorted for the data collection. Five communities were selected the research points Brasilia; Brazlândia; Núcleo Bandeirante; Taguatinga and Vargem Bonita, based not only on historical factors related to Japanese (i)migration in the Planalto Central, but also on their importance in the economic scene and in the Distrito Federal development. Next, a research tool called Visual Semantic-lexical Questionnaire is applied on ten bilingual Japanese-Brazilians subjects who were divided into two age groups 51 to 65 and 66 onwards, all female gender and belonging to the second generation (Nisei). The responses registered in the interviews allow the development of a semantic-lexical database. Subsequently, the data are described and documented in 41 language cartograms, aimed to presenting the frequency and distribution of the semanticlexical information in Japanese and Portuguese and/or Portuguese-Japanese surveyed points. The theoretical basis is anchored in Sociolinguistics, focusing on bilingualism, specifically in language contact and in the phenomena that derive from this process: lexical borrowing and code switching. Resorting to Grosjean, Thomason and Kaufman and Gumperz studies, among others. Given the nature of this research, the Dialectology / Geolinguistic studies are equally contemplated, highlighting Chambers and Trudgill, Mase and Onishi works. In the end, it is possible to verify that the data analysis allows not only to the description of the Japanese- Brazilian speaking as well as to the elaboration of the atlas sketch of this speaking. The semantic-lexical occurrences presented in this study point to the setting of a Japanese- Brazilian variety in the surveyed points, as well as provide this speaking partial picture.

A partir de 1870, com a intenção de garantir a unidade nacional, o Uruguai se definiu como um país monolíngue, onde o espanhol se constituiu na língua do país, sem que nenhuma lei oficial assim o determinasse. Porém, com os estudos de Rona (1965), o norte do país ganhou destaque ao comprovar-se a existência de falantes de português. Estudos posteriores realizados por Elizaincín (1979), Behares (2007), Barrios (2007) e, sobretudo por H. Thun através do ADDU (Atlas linguístico Diatópico y Diastrático del Uruguay), coordenado por Thun constataram a presença histórica do português na região fronteiriça e não apenas devido à influência exercida pelo Brasil. O objetivo deste trabalho é analisar o contato linguístico entre o espanhol e o português nas regiões bilíngues uruguaias, com destaque às percepções dos falantes e sua relação com as políticas linguísticas vigentes. A análise da documentação linguística permite acompanhar o contínuo das políticas em vigor no Uruguai que, de acordo com a classificação de Altenhofen (2013), tem sofrido uma mudança favorável em direção ao plurilinguismo, fato que tem permitido ao portugués del Uruguay condições de promoção, gerando inclusive movimentos para seu reconhecimento como patrimônio imaterial. A metodologia de pesquisa teve por base a análise pluridimensional de Thun (1998), considerando suas diversas dimensões na tentativa de identificar a existência de fronteiras internas no portugués del Uruguay, ou portunhol, como seus falantes preferem denominá-lo. Para a coleta de dados foi aplicado um questionário, tendo como informantes 40 indivíduos (divididos de acordo com o sexo, a faixa etária e o grau de instrução) em cada um dos pontos pesquisados: Chuy, Río Branco, Rivera, Artigas e Montevidéu. Nas cidades de fronteira as entrevistas foram feitas em português (falantes bilíngues) e em Montevidéu em espanhol (falantes monolíngues). A intenção é dar voz às comunidades de fala, verificando como as ações in vitro, de acordo com Calvet (2007), são percebidas e como elas dialogam com a realidade fronteiriça. A fronteira aqui abordada é entendida como um espaço de transição, conforme Contini (2006), onde a percepção dos falantes a transforma em espaços subjetivos e a língua ganha características especiais. Os resultados indicam a heterogeneidade dos diferentes pontos de fronteira aqui pesquisados, bem como a mudança significativa do status do português em Montevidéu. / In 1870, with the intention to ensure national unity, Uruguay defined itself as a monolingual country, in which Spanish was established as the country’s language, without any official law to determine it. However, because of the studies carried out by Rona (1965), the north of the country gained prominence when the existence of Portuguese speakers was confirmed. Later studies by Elizaincín (1979), Behares (2007) and Barrios (2007) found the historical presence of Portuguese in the borderline region and not just as an influence exerted by Brazil. The goal of this paper is to analyze the linguistic contact between Spanish and Portuguese in the Uruguayan bilingual regions, with emphasis on the speakers’ perceptions and their relationship with the current language policies. The analysis of the linguistic documentation makes it possible to monitor the ongoing current policies in Uruguay that, according to Altenhofen’s classification (2013), have undergone a positive change towards plurilingualism, a fact that has enabled Portugués del Uruguay to have conditions for promotion, also generating movements for its recognition as intangible heritage. The methodology was based on Thun’s multi-dimensional analysis (1998), considering its several dimensions in order to identify the existence of existing internal frontiers in Portugués del Uruguay, or portuñol, as their speakers prefer to call it. For data collection, a questionnaire was applied to 40 informants (divided according to sex, age group and education level) in each of the surveyed cities: Chuy, Rio Branco, Rivera, Artigas and Montevideo. In border cities, interviews were conducted in Portuguese (bilingual speakers) and in Montevideo, in Spanish (monolingual speakers). The intention is to give voice to speech communities, checking, according to Calvet (2007), how the in vitro actions are perceived and how they dialogue with the border reality. The border here addressed is seen as a transitional space, according to Contini (2006), where the perception of the speakers turns it into subjective spaces and the language gets special features. The results indicate the heterogeneity of the different border points here searched, and the significant change in the Portuguese status in Montevideo. / A partir de 1870, con la intención de lograr la unidad nacional, Uruguay se definió como un país monolingüe, donde el español se tornó la lengua del país, sin que ninguna ley oficial lo determinara. Sin embargo, con los estudios de Rona (1965), el norte del país cobró destaque al comprobar la existencia de lusohablantes. Estudios posteriores hechos por Elizaincín (1979), Behares (2007) y Barrios (2007) verificaron la presencia histórica del portugués en la región fronteriza y no solo debido a la influencia ejercida por Brasil. El objetivo de este trabajo es analizar el contacto lingüístico entre el español y el portugués en las regiones bilingües uruguayas, con destaque a las percepciones de los hablantes y su relación con las políticas lingüísticas vigentes. El análisis de la documentación lingüística ha permitido acompañar el continuo de las políticas que han vigorado en Uruguay que, de acuerdo con la clasificación de Altenhofen (2013), ha sufrido un cambio favorable hacia el plurilingüismo, hecho que le ha permitido al portugués del Uruguay condiciones de promoción, generando incluso movimientos para que sea reconocido como patrimonio inmaterial. La metodología de investigación tuvo por base el análisis pluridimensional de Thun (1998), considerando sus diversas dimensiones en el intento de identificar la existencia de fronteras internas en el portugués del Uruguay, o portuñol, como sus hablantes prefieren denominarlo. Para la colecta de datos se aplicó un cuestionario, teniendo como informantes a 40 individuos (divididos de acuerdo al sexo, edad y grado de escolaridad) en cada uno de los puntos investigados: Chuy, Río Branco, Rivera, Artigas y Montevideo. En las ciudades de frontera las entrevistas se hicieron en portugués (hablantes bilingües) y en Montevideo en español (hablantes monolingües). La intención ha sido darles voz a las comunidades de habla, verificando como las acciones in vitro, de acuerdo con Calvet (2007), se perciben y cómo dialogan con la realidad fronteriza. La frontera aquí abordada se entiende como un espacio de transición, conforme Contini (2006), en que la percepción de los hablantes la transforma en espacios subjetivos y la lengua adquiere características especiales. Los resultados indican la heterogeneidad entre los distintos puntos de la frontera aquí investigados, así como el cambio significativo del status del portugués en Montevideo.

La présente étude s’inscrit dans le cadre plus vaste de la description des langues de l’aire linguistique Amdo. Cette région est caractérisée par la présence de langues sinitiques, mongoliques, tibétiques et turciques et, pour le salar et le tibétain, une situation de contact linguistique long d’environ sept siècles. Le salar est l’une des langues turciques les moins décrites et elle présente de nombreuses particularités dues à son isolement par rapport aux autres langues turciques. Il n’existe pas non plus de description des variétés de tibétain parlées dans la région salarophone, périphérique dans la tibétosphère. La perspective que nous adoptons ici est donc à la fois descriptive et comparative. Après un exposé des caractéristiques historiques et sociolinguistiques de cette situation de contact, nous analysons de façon détaillée des catégories grammaticales indexées dans le syntagme nominal et dans le prédicat. En particulier, nous proposons une nouvelle analyse des morphèmes de Temps-Aspect-Mode en salar et montrons que cette langue a copié en partie ses catégories évidentielles sur le modèle de celles du tibétain de l’Amdo. Nous nous intéressons ensuite aux problématiques liées à la valence verbale et aux effets du contact linguistique sur l’organisation accusative et ergative qui caractérisent respectivement le salar et le tibétain de l’Amdo. Nous analysons les marques casuelles à la fois comme relateurs, au sein du prédicat verbal, mais également comme converbe ou au sein des formes converbiales. Enfin, nous décrivons les catégories de voix grammaticalisées en salar et en tibétain, et montrons que celles-ci sont quasiment identiques dans les deux langues. / This study falls within the larger description of the languages of the Amdo linguistic area. This area is characterized by the coexistence of Sinitic, Mongolic, Tibetic and Turkic languages, and, regarding Salar and Tibetan, an approximately seven-century-long contact situation. Salar language remains one of the less described Turkic languages and, because of its isolation from the other Turkic languages, displays many specificities. There exists no description of the Amdo-Tibetan variety spoken in the Salar-speaking region either, this region being very peripheral in the Tibetosphere. The perspective taken in this study is thus both descriptive and comparative. After a depiction of the historical and sociolinguistic characteristics of this contact-situation, we analyse in detail the grammatical categories indexed in the nominal phrase and in the predicate. Notably, we suggest a new analysis of the Tense-Aspect-Mood morphemes in Salar and we show that the Amdo-Tibetan evidential categories have been partly copied in Salar. Then, the question of verb valency is addressed, and the effects of language contact on the Turkic accusative and on the Tibetic ergative organisation are explored. We analyze the case markers not only as markers of syntactic dependancy within the verb predicate, but also in their role as or in converbs. Finally, we describe the grammatical voices attested in Salar and in Amdo Tibetan, and show that the syntactic and semantic characteristics are almost identical in the two languages.

A presente tese tem como objetivo descrever o falar nipo-brasileiro em cinco comunidades do Distrito Federal com vistas à construção do Esboço do Atlas do Falar dos Nipo-Brasileiros do Distrito Federal: aspecto semântico-lexical. O contato de línguas (português versus japonês), cada vez mais estreito, acarreta mudanças expressivas no cenário linguístico e se manifesta na fala dos nipo-brasileiros, cuja situação evidencia o entrelaçamento de duas línguas que se aliam e se alinham, configurando uma nova forma de uso que denominamos variedade nipobrasileira, objeto desta pesquisa. Essa fala é sustentada pela história linguística de (i)migrantes e seus descendentes e percorre seu curso natural de língua em constante movimento, criando, assim, situações linguísticas próprias. Diante deste fato, faz-se necessário resgatar e registrar esse uso, uma vez que a fala simboliza, em parte, a identidade linguística deste grupo social. A presente tese busca registrar e descrever a variedade nipobrasileira quanto ao componente semântico-lexical. Para a coleta de dados recorre-se a procedimentos metodológicos da Geolinguística. Selecionam-se cinco comunidades, pontos da pesquisa Brasília; Brazlândia; Núcleo Bandeirante; Taguatinga e Vargem Bonita com base não apenas em fatores históricos relacionados à (i)migração japonesa no Planalto Central, como também na importância destas no cenário econômico e no desenvolvimento do Distrito Federal. A seguir, aplica-se um instrumento de pesquisa denominado Questionário Semântico-Lexical Visual a dez sujeitos nipo-brasileiros bilíngues que foram subdivididos em duas faixas etárias de 51 a 65 e 66 anos em diante , todos do sexo/gênero feminino e pertencentes à segunda geração (nissei). As respostas registradas nas entrevistas permitem a elaboração de um banco de dados semântico-lexicais. Posteriormente, os dados são descritos e documentados em 41 cartogramas linguísticos, que visam à apresentação da frequência e distribuição dos dados semântico-lexicais em japonês e português e/ou português-japonês nos pontos pesquisados. A base teórica ancora-se na Sociolinguística, com enfoque no bilinguismo, mais especificamente no contato de línguas e nos fenômenos que derivam desse processo: o empréstimo lexical e a mudança de código. Recorre-se aos estudos, entre outros, de Grosjean, Thomason e Kaufman e Gumperz. Dada a natureza desta pesquisa, contemplamse igualmente os estudos de Dialetologia/Geolinguística, com destaque para os trabalhos de Chambers e Trudgill, Mase e Onishi. Ao final, verifica-se que a análise dos dados possibilita não somente a descrição do falar nipo-brasileiro como também a elaboração do esboço do atlas desse falar. As ocorrências semântico-lexicais apresentadas na pesquisa apontam para a configuração de uma variedade nipo-brasileira nos pontos pesquisados, como também constituem um retrato parcial desse falar. / This thesis aims to describe the Japanese-Brazilian speaking in five communities of the Distrito Federal in order to construct an Atlas Sketch of the Distrito Federal Japanese- Brazilian Speaking. The language contact (Portuguese vs. Japanese), increasingly narrow, entails significant changes in the linguistic scene and manifests itself in the Japanese- Brazilians speaking, whose situation highlights the locking of two languages that ally and align, setting up in a new way of use that we call Japanese-Brazilian variety, object of this research. This speaking is sustained by the (i)migrants and their descendants linguist history and runs its natural course of a language in constant motion, thus creating proper language situations. Given this fact, it is necessary to rescue and register, this usage, once the speech symbolizes, partly, the linguistic identity of this social group. This thesis seeks to register and describe the Japanese-Brazilian variety as to the semantic-lexical components. The Geolinguistic methodological procedures were resorted for the data collection. Five communities were selected the research points Brasilia; Brazlândia; Núcleo Bandeirante; Taguatinga and Vargem Bonita, based not only on historical factors related to Japanese (i)migration in the Planalto Central, but also on their importance in the economic scene and in the Distrito Federal development. Next, a research tool called Visual Semantic-lexical Questionnaire is applied on ten bilingual Japanese-Brazilians subjects who were divided into two age groups 51 to 65 and 66 onwards, all female gender and belonging to the second generation (Nisei). The responses registered in the interviews allow the development of a semantic-lexical database. Subsequently, the data are described and documented in 41 language cartograms, aimed to presenting the frequency and distribution of the semanticlexical information in Japanese and Portuguese and/or Portuguese-Japanese surveyed points. The theoretical basis is anchored in Sociolinguistics, focusing on bilingualism, specifically in language contact and in the phenomena that derive from this process: lexical borrowing and code switching. Resorting to Grosjean, Thomason and Kaufman and Gumperz studies, among others. Given the nature of this research, the Dialectology / Geolinguistic studies are equally contemplated, highlighting Chambers and Trudgill, Mase and Onishi works. In the end, it is possible to verify that the data analysis allows not only to the description of the Japanese- Brazilian speaking as well as to the elaboration of the atlas sketch of this speaking. The semantic-lexical occurrences presented in this study point to the setting of a Japanese- Brazilian variety in the surveyed points, as well as provide this speaking partial picture.

This study investigates variable noun phrase number agreement (VNA) in two second language varieties of Portuguese, spoken in Maputo, Mozambique and in Mindelo, Cape Verde. Quantitative VARBRUL analysis is carried out based on recordings made in Maputo and Mindelo 2007 and 2008. Previous quantitative studies on VNA in varieties of Brazilian Portuguese (Guy, 1981; Lopes, 2001; Andrade, 2003) as well as on VNA in first and second language varieties of Portuguese from São Tomé (Baxter, 2004; Figueiredo, 2008, 2010) indicate contact between Portuguese and African languages as the main origin of this phenomenon. VNA in Brazilian Portuguese is, however, interpreted by Scherre (1988) and Naro & Scherre (1993, 2007) as the result of language internal drift. Varieties of Portuguese from Mozambique and Cape Verde are particularly interesting to contrast in order to investigate influences from African languages on VNA, as in Mozambique Bantu languages are first languages of the vast majority of Portuguese speakers, whereas in Cape Verde, practically all Portuguese speakers are first language speakers of Cape Verdean Creole, whose substrates are West African, and not Bantu, languages. Comparison is also made with previous studies from Brazil and São Tomé. The results of this study comment previously postulated explanations for VNA in Portuguese in various ways. The analysis of the variables onset age and age stratum indicates that VNA in the analyzed varieties is a phenomenon linked to the acquisition of Portuguese as a second language and/or language contact rather than the result of internal drift. The fact that all the compared varieties tend to mark plural on pre-head components contradicts Bantu transfer as an explanation for this pattern, and raises the need to also consider more general explanations based on language contact. The basic structural similarity between the compared varieties suggests the existence of a grammatical restructuring continuum.

This study investigates variable noun phrase number agreement (VNA) in two second language varieties of Portuguese, spoken in Maputo, Mozambique and in Mindelo, Cape Verde. Quantitative VARBRUL analysis is carried out based on recordings made in Maputo and Mindelo 2007 and 2008. Previous quantitative studies on VNA in varieties of Brazilian Portuguese (Guy, 1981; Lopes, 2001; Andrade, 2003) as well as on VNA in first and second language varieties of Portuguese from São Tomé (Baxter, 2004; Figueiredo, 2008, 2010) indicate contact between Portuguese and African languages as the main origin of this phenomenon. VNA in Brazilian Portuguese is, however, interpreted by Scherre (1988) and Naro & Scherre (1993, 2007) as the result of language internal drift. Varieties of Portuguese from Mozambique and Cape Verde are particularly interesting to contrast in order to investigate influences from African languages on VNA, as in Mozambique Bantu languages are first languages of the vast majority of Portuguese speakers, whereas in Cape Verde, practically all Portuguese speakers are first language speakers of Cape Verdean Creole, whose substrates are West African, and not Bantu, languages. Comparison is also made with previous studies from Brazil and São Tomé. The results of this study comment previously postulated explanations for VNA in Portuguese in various ways. The analysis of the variables onset age and age stratum indicates that VNA in the analyzed varieties is a phenomenon linked to the acquisition of Portuguese as a second language and/or language contact rather than the result of internal drift. The fact that all the compared varieties tend to mark plural on pre-head components contradicts Bantu transfer as an explanation for this pattern, and raises the need to also consider more general explanations based on language contact. The basic structural similarity between the compared varieties suggests the existence of a grammatical restructuring continuum.

Considérés comme variétés marginales, les parlers basques orientaux —notamment la branche roncalo-souletine— dénotent une forte tendance archaïsante qui rend nécessaire la recherche diachronique sur ces dialectes. Le souletin est, sans aucun doute, le principal dialecte parmi les parlers orientaux disposant de témoignages écrits dans le passé. Grâce au caractère relativement précoce des témoignages et à leur continuité temporelle, le caractère prioritaire du souletin dans l’étude diachronique du basque oriental est incontestable. Cette thèse aborde donc l’histoire du dialecte souletin à travers ses textes. En d’autres termes, notre approche concerne l’histoire interne de la langue, et ne vise pas à établir son évolution en fonction des locuteurs ou des événements politiques et socio-économiques qui l’auraient influencée (histoire externe). En quête d’hypothèses solides, notre travail de description diachronique se base sur un corpus composé de plus de quarante textes qui embrasse la plupart des ouvrages imprimés entre 1657 et 1873, en plus d’une sélection représentative des témoignages de la tradition populaire. Notre recherche s’est déroulée en deux phases : 1) la constitution du corpus, qui a exigé un travail philologique profond ; et 2) le travail d’analyse d’un ensemble étendu d’éléments linguistiques concernant tous les niveaux de la langue, à l’exception du lexique. Quant à l’explication des données, nous avons eu recours aux outils habituels de la linguistique historique, et plus précisément ceux qui peuvent nous aider à dévoiler le passé d’une langue sans parent connu : a) la comparaison interne ; b) la théorie de la grammaticalisation ; et c) la typologie linguistique. A ces trois instruments d’analyse nous en avons ajouté deux autres : la connaissance des phénomènes de contact linguistique, d’une part, et la sociolinguistique historique d’autre part. L’examen des plus de cinquante traits linguistiques sélectionnés nous permet d’offrir une vision générale de l’évolution du basque souletin. Nous avons conclu que ce dialecte est dans l’essentiel une variété conservatrice qui a maintenu nombre d’archaïsmes datant du Basque Unifié Ancien (circa VIIe siècle ; cf. Mitxelena 1981), ainsi que des innovations et des choix de date ancienne partagés avec d’autres parlers orientaux. Par ailleurs, nous avons démontré que les innovations développées par le basque souletin au cours des derniers siècles s’expliquent en raison du contact intensif avec le gascon, voir, béarnais. / Regarded as marginal varieties, Eastern Basque dialects —in particular the Roncalo Souletin branch— show a strong tendency to archaism, which makes diachronic research on these dialects most necessary. Souletin is undoubtedly the main dialect among the Eastern varieties of Basque with old written documents; due to their relatively early nature and temporal continuity, the centrality of Souletin in the diachronic study of the Eastern Basque is uncontroversial. This dissertation focuses on the evolution of Souletin on the basis of the diachronic analysis of a wide array of linguistic features, mostly —but not only— morphosyntactic ones. In other words, it targets the internal history of the language, and so does not aim to establish its evolution according to its speakers or the political and socio-economic events which could have influenced it (external history). In the search for solid basis/foundations, this dissertation is based on a corpus composed of more than forty texts (1616-1899), which covers the majority of the printed production, in addition to a representative sample of documents from popular tradition. We have carried out this research in two phases: 1) the definition and constitution of the corpus, which has implied exhaustive philological work; and 2) the analysis of more than fifty linguistic features. Regarding the explanation of the data, we have used the main tools of historical linguistics, and more specifically those which help us understand the past of an isolated language: a) internal comparison; b) grammaticalisation; and c) typology. Moreover, we have taken into consideration language contact phenomena and the approach of historical sociolinguistics. After having analysed the historical development of every linguistic feature under consideration, we are able to offer a complete picture of the evolution of Souletin Basque, as well as the direction of the changes that it underwent. We have shown that Souletin Basque is essentially conservative: in fact, it has maintained a number of archaisms dating from the Old Common Basque (c. 7th century; cf. Mitxelena 1981), as well as ancient innovations shared with other eastern varieties. Furthermore, we have demonstrated that the main Souletine innovations of the last centuries are due to intensive contact with Gascon Occitan.

This dissertation investigates the diverse ways in which the Portuguese language expanded in Brazil, despite the multilingual landscape that predominated prior to and after the arrival of the Europeans and the African diaspora. It challenges the assumption that the predominance of Portuguese was a natural consequence and foregone conclusion of colonisation. This work argues that the expansion of Portuguese was a tumultuous process that mirrored the power relations and conflicts between Amerindian, European, African, and mestizo actors who shaped, standardised, and promoted the Portuguese language within and beyond state institutions. The expansion of Portuguese was as much a result of state intervention as it was of individual agency. Language was a mechanism of power that opened possibilities in a society where ethnic, religious, and economic criteria usually marginalised the vast majority of the population from the colonial system. Basic literacy skills allowed access to certain occupations in administration, trading, teaching, and priesthood that elevated people’s social standing. These possibilities created, in most social groups, the desire to emulate the elites and to appropriate the Portuguese language as part of their identity. This research situates the question of language, identity, and power within the theoretical framework of Atlantic history between 1695 and 1822. Atlantic history contributes to our understanding of the ways in which peoples, materials, institutions and ideas moved across Iberia, Africa and the Americas without overlooking the new contours that these elements assumed in the colony, as they moved in tandem, but also contested each other. Focusing on the mining district of Minas Gerais for its economic and social importance, this dissertation draws on multiple ecclesiastical and administrative sources to assess how ordinary people and authoritative figures daily interacted with one another to shape the Portuguese language.