Many mammals are social. The most basic social behaviour is when the actions of one conspecific are directed toward another, what we call the dyadic interaction. Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors may affect an individuals propensity to interact with other members of a population. I used a social cervid, elk (Cervus elaphus), as a model species to test the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic factors of sociality on dyadic interactions. Dyadic interactions not only form the basis for social structure and information transfer within a population, but are also routes of pathogen transmission. My objective in this thesis was thus twofold: to improve our understanding of sociobiology, but also to gain insight into how sociality may underlie the transmission of communicable wildlife disease. I used a hierarchical, autecological approach from DNA, through individual, dyad, group, subpopulation, and ultimately population to explore the effects of intrinsic factors (e.g., sex and pairwise genetic relatedness) and extrinsic factors (e.g., season, conspecific density, habitat, and elk group size) on sociality. Elk in Riding Mountain National Park (RMNP), Manitoba, Canada, are exposed to the causal agent of bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis; TB); however, spatial variation in apparent disease prevalence suggests that TB can only persist in one subpopulation within the Park. Using the natural RMNP system and a captive elk herd that I manipulated, I explored factors that influence interaction rates and durations (as a proxy for pathogen transmission) among elk. Sexual segregation in elk results in seasonal and sex-based differences in interaction rate and duration; with interactions peaking in autumn-winter for both sexes. Female-female dyads interact more frequently than male-male dyads. However, male-male dyads interact for longer durations than do female-female dyads. Interaction rate and duration did not covary with pairwise relatedness. Conspecific density also had sex-specific results for interaction rate and duration. Whereas male-male dyadic interaction rates increase with density, female-female dyads increase until they reach a threshold and subsequently reduce their interaction rates at high density. I observed density dependence in interaction rates in experimental trials and from field data. Furthermore, social networks revealed that social familiarity (i.e., heterogeneity of interactions) can be both frequency- and- density dependent depending on the strength of the relationship (i.e., number of repeat interactions). Density also affected the likelihood that an interaction would occur; however, this was modified by vegetation association used by elk. My results reveal several ecological and evolutionary implications for information transfer and pathogen transmission. In particular, I show that seasonal inter-sex routes of transfer may exist and that transfer is likely to be density-dependent. Finally, I conclude that such transfer is modified by available resources.

Many mammals are social. The most basic social behaviour is when the actions of one conspecific are directed toward another, what we call the dyadic interaction. Both intrinsic and extrinsic factors may affect an individuals propensity to interact with other members of a population. I used a social cervid, elk (Cervus elaphus), as a model species to test the importance of intrinsic and extrinsic factors of sociality on dyadic interactions. Dyadic interactions not only form the basis for social structure and information transfer within a population, but are also routes of pathogen transmission. My objective in this thesis was thus twofold: to improve our understanding of sociobiology, but also to gain insight into how sociality may underlie the transmission of communicable wildlife disease. I used a hierarchical, autecological approach from DNA, through individual, dyad, group, subpopulation, and ultimately population to explore the effects of intrinsic factors (e.g., sex and pairwise genetic relatedness) and extrinsic factors (e.g., season, conspecific density, habitat, and elk group size) on sociality. Elk in Riding Mountain National Park (RMNP), Manitoba, Canada, are exposed to the causal agent of bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis; TB); however, spatial variation in apparent disease prevalence suggests that TB can only persist in one subpopulation within the Park. Using the natural RMNP system and a captive elk herd that I manipulated, I explored factors that influence interaction rates and durations (as a proxy for pathogen transmission) among elk. Sexual segregation in elk results in seasonal and sex-based differences in interaction rate and duration; with interactions peaking in autumn-winter for both sexes. Female-female dyads interact more frequently than male-male dyads. However, male-male dyads interact for longer durations than do female-female dyads. Interaction rate and duration did not covary with pairwise relatedness. Conspecific density also had sex-specific results for interaction rate and duration. Whereas male-male dyadic interaction rates increase with density, female-female dyads increase until they reach a threshold and subsequently reduce their interaction rates at high density. I observed density dependence in interaction rates in experimental trials and from field data. Furthermore, social networks revealed that social familiarity (i.e., heterogeneity of interactions) can be both frequency- and- density dependent depending on the strength of the relationship (i.e., number of repeat interactions). Density also affected the likelihood that an interaction would occur; however, this was modified by vegetation association used by elk. My results reveal several ecological and evolutionary implications for information transfer and pathogen transmission. In particular, I show that seasonal inter-sex routes of transfer may exist and that transfer is likely to be density-dependent. Finally, I conclude that such transfer is modified by available resources.

情態動詞「會」在前人的研究當中，具有許多不同的功能，例如表能力、表預知、表一般特性等不同的功能。本論文採用Monosemy View，認為「會」在語言表面上所呈現出之不同用法，並不是武斷毫無關係的，而是存在著非常密切的語意關連性。再者，透過此觀點，我們希望嘗試找出這些不同功能之間的語意關係。本研究提出三個假設如下：第一，情態動詞「會」有一個語意核心，表說話者對於句子命題的體現(realization)，有著非常高的把握；第二，情態動詞「會」在句子裡擔任一個運符(operator)的角色，其作用是將說話者對此句子的語態加諸在此句子之上；第三，本篇論文提出「會」所呈現出許多不同的功能，是經由情態動詞與句子之情態內容所交互作用的結果。 / Carrying multiple functions--such as ability, prediction and generic--the modal verb hui in Mandarin Chinese has been extensively studied by previous researchers. This thesis, following the monosemy view, claims that the various functions of hui are not arbitrary, but closely related to one another. To account for the correlation between the various functions of hui, this thesis proposes three hypotheses. First, hui denotes assurance, indicating that the speaker’s attitude towards the realization of the propositional content is full of high assurance. Secondly, hui functions as an OPERATOR of the proposition denoted by the sentence. Thirdly, hui's multiple functions are context-derived. This thesis maintains that it is the interaction between the modal verb hui and the sentence’s proposition that results in the different functions carried by hui.

The shifting topography of contemporary Japanese society is engendering a significant reorientation of men’s family relations. However, exactly how Japanese men are adapting to these broad-based trends, including parent-child relations, demographics, marriage norms, care provision, residential choices, and gender roles, as well as in the decline of Confucian worldviews, remains relatively obscure. In this dissertation, I explore men’s everyday practices underpinning their family relations as husbands, fathers, sons-in-law, and grandfathers. I conducted ethnographic fieldwork in the summers of 2013 and 2014 in Hyogo, through narrative interviews and participant-observation. I find husbands’ view of their wives transitioning from having a culturally prescribed duty to perform domestic matters to simply having responsibility for domestic matters. This opens up space for negotiation within married couples, with my informants providing what I refer to as additional help, which offers new insight into charting the evolution of hegemonic masculinity. I evidence relatedness founded on exchange as an approach to understand relations across the extended family, which importantly involves additional help, financial resources, and intimacy. I underscore how men selectively seek intimacy in some family relations, notably as fathers and grandfathers. Provision of additional help and seeking of intimacy lead to men’s (re)construction of masculinities differing across family relations, with an important reason for men to select their practices so as to craft their family relations is to address their sense of well-being. Further, the pattern of men’s family relations reveals the emergence of substantially novel sons-in-law relations, as compared to that found in ie patriarchal norms. This evidence suggests a fundamental shift from a vertically-dominated set of family relations, as in the ie household, to a more horizontal, fluid set of relations across the extended family.

Innehavandet av motiverade medarbetare anses vara en organisatorisk framgångsfaktor. Enligt tidigare forskning är organisationer med motiverade medarbetare 30–40 procent mer produktiva än organisationer med omotiverade medarbetare. Motivationen anses även ha positiva effekter på medarbetarnas personliga utveckling, prestationer, arbetstillfredsställelse och välmående. Tidigare forskning som utgår ifrån Self-Determination Theory (SDT) redogör för att tre grundläggande psykologiska behov, autonomi, kompetens och samhörighet bidrar till en ökad arbetsmotivation. Det är även bevisat att yttre faktorer i sociala miljöer kan främja respektive hämma medarbetarnas arbetsmotivation, enligt SDT. Trots att tidigare forskning har påvisat att medarbetarnas motivation är betydande för organisationer, samt har positiva effekter för medarbetarnas utveckling, prestation, arbetstillfredsställelse och välmående finns det begränsad kvalitativ forskning som förklarar hur medarbetare motiveras. Forskarna för denna studie anser att resultaten från tidigare studier förklarar vad som bidrar till en ökad arbetsmotivation hos medarbetarna men ger inga utförliga förklaringar om vilka arbetsrelaterade faktorer medarbetarna upplever som motivationshöjande. Syftet med studien blir således att bidra med en ökad förståelse och kunskap om hur medarbetare motiveras av de psykologiska behoven av autonomi, kompetens och samhörighet samt hur yttre faktorer som organisatoriska värderingar och lön bidrar till en ökad eller minskad inre motivation. Forskarna har genomfört en kvalitativ fallstudie och har med hjälp av intervjuer besvarat studiens syfte och frågeställningar. Studiens resultat och slutsatser visar på hur medarbetarna kan motiveras utifrån de psykologiska behoven av autonomi, kompetens och samhörighet samt hur organisatoriska värderingar och erhållen lön bidrar till en ökad eller minskad inre arbetsmotivation. / To maintain motivated employees is considered an organizational success factor. According to previous research, organizations with motivated employees are 30-40 percent more productive than organizations with amotivated employees. Motivation is also considered to have positive effects on employees' personal development, performance, job satisfaction and well-being. Previous research based on Self-Determination Theory (SDT) explains that three basic psychological needs, autonomy, competence and relatedness contribute to increased work motivation. It is also proved that external factors in social environments can promote or inhibit employees' motivation, according to SDT. Although previous research has shown that employee motivation is significant for organizations, as well as having positive effects on employee development, performance, job satisfaction and prosperity, limited qualitative research explains how employees are motivated. The researchers for this study believe that the results of previous studies explain what contributes to an increased work motivation among employees but does not provide detailed explanations which work-related factors employees feel as motivating. The aim of the study is thus to contribute to increased understanding and knowledge of how employees are motivated by the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, and how external factors such as organizational values and wages contribute to increased or decreased internal motivation. The researchers have done a qualitative case study and with the help of interviews answered the purpose and research questions of the study. The results and conclusions of the study show how employees can be motivated based on the psychological needs of autonomy, competence and relatedness, and how organizational values and wages are contributing to increased or decreased internal work motivation.

Social isolering förekommer i samhället ständigt och drabbar människan på olika sätt. Det kan orsaka ohälsosamma beteenden, depression och för tidig död. I och med coronaviruset Covid-19 har en stor del av Sveriges befolkning uppmuntrats begränsa graden av social kontakt. Social kontakt är viktigt för att bibehålla människans välmående och motivation. Brist på social kontakt kan leda till social isolering vilket har en negativ effekt på motivation till akademiska studier samt fysisk aktivitet. Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka hur motivation till studier och fysisk aktivitet påverkas vid begränsad social kontakt. Dessutom skall faktorer som self-efficacy (tron på sin egen förmåga), autonomi, samhörighet och kompetens (SDT) verka som potentiella faktorer som möjligen influerar graden av motivation begränsad social kontakt. Urvalet bestod av 34 universitetsstudenter från Sverige. Data samlades in via enkäter vilka besvarades två gånger med 3 veckors mellanrum. Analys av data gjordes genom deskriptiv statistik, beroendet-test och ett oberoende t-test. Resultatet visade att studiemotivation signifikant försämrats under studiens gång. En icke-signifikant skillnad observerades i graden av motivation till fysisk aktivitet. Self-efficacy och SDT förklarade inte graden av motivation för studier eller fysisk aktivitet. De icke-signifikanta resultaten kan förklaras av begränsat och icke-representativt urval, hög grad av social kontakt hos deltagarna samt att de utfärdade restriktionerna delvis begränsar deltagarna. / Social isolation occurs in society and affects people in different ways. Social isolation could give rice to unhealthy behaviour, depression and premature death. Due to the spread of the Coronavirus, Covid-19, a great amount of the Swedish population has been encouraged to restrict their social interaction with other people. However, social interaction is of importance for the level of motivation and well-being that people experience. Limited social interacation can lead to social isolation which produces a negative effect on motivation towards education as well as towards physical activity. The objective with this research was to examine if students with limited social interaction experience a deficiency in motivation towards education and physical activity. To examine possible factors that could influence the degree of motivation this study used scales based on self-efficacy (one’s beliefs in one’s ability), autonomy, relatedness and competence (SDT). The selection was 34 university students from Sweden. Data was gathered with a survey that was distributed two times within a time frame of three weeks. The analysis of the data was computed through descriptive statistics, paired samples t-test and independent samples t-test. A statistical significance was found for motivation towards education. There were no significant results for motivation towards physical activity. Neither Self-efficacy or SDT explained the degree of motivation towards education or physical activity. The non-significant result could be explained by the non-representative and small sample size as well by the students' high amount of established social interaction. Sweden's issued restrictions could have affected the result as it only moderately limits students' social environment.

Pour permettre de mieux comprendre la problématique du désengagement des adolescents en éducation physique et aussi à l’endroit de l’activité physique en général, la présente étude avait pour objectif d’examiner les liens entre, d’une part, le climat motivationnel en classe d’éducation physique (maîtrise et performance) et les besoins psychologiques des élèves des deux sexes (compétence, autonomie et appartenance) et, d’autre part, les buts d’accomplissement (maîtrise, performance-approche et performance-évitement) poursuivis en éducation physique. Elle visait aussi à examiner l’impact des buts d’accomplissement sur les attitudes et habitudes des adolescents à l’endroit de l’activité physique en général. Pour atteindre ces objectifs, 909 élèves (âge moyen = 13,87[0,94]) ont rempli des questionnaires à items auto-révélés à trois reprises pendant l’année scolaire. Des modèles d’équations structurelles (AMOS 22), des analyses d’invariance ainsi que l’approche sans contrainte ont servi à analyser les données. Les résultats indiquent que les buts d’accomplissement des élèves varient en fonction du climat motivationnel perçu et que le sentiment de compétence entretient une relation positive avec les trois buts d’accomplissement. Ces relations étaient invariantes selon le sexe des élèves. Par ailleurs, une seule interaction climat-besoin s’est avérée significative : l’interaction entre le climat de maîtrise et le sentiment d’autonomie prédit négativement l’adoption de buts de performance-évitement. Cela signifie que la perception d’un climat de maîtrise réduit l’adoption de buts de performance-évitement par les élèves, mais seulement lorsque ceux-ci affichent un fort sentiment d’autonomie. Finalement, l’adoption de buts de maîtrise et de buts de performance-approche en éducation physique exerce une influence positive sur les attitudes des élèves qui, à leur tour, influencent leurs habitudes en activité physique. Seule l’adoption de buts de performance-approche entretient une relation positive directe avec les habitudes des élèves. En conclusion, l’enseignant d’éducation physique peut agir sur la motivation et l’engagement des élèves en classe, mais aussi à l’extérieur des cours, en instaurant un climat motivationnel de maîtrise et en aidant les élèves à satisfaire leur besoin de compétence. / To better understand the issue of teenagers’ lack of motivation in physical education and towards physical activity in general, this study proposes to verify the relationships between, on one hand, the motivational climate (mastery and performance) and the basic psychological needs (competence, autonomy and relatedness) of students of both gender and, on the other hand, the achievement goals (mastery, performance-approach and performance-avoidance) they pursue in physical education. This research project also investigates the influence of achievement goals on the teenagers’ attitudes and habits towards physical activity in general. To meet these objectives, 909 students (age mean = 13,87[0,94]) filled self-reported questionnaires on three occasions during the school year. Structural equation models (AMOS 22), invariance analyses and the unconstrained approach were used to analyse the data. Results show that students’ achievement goals vary in accordance to the perception of the motivational climate and that the perceived competence has a positive relationship with the three types of achievement goals. Those relationships were invariant across groups (boys and girls). Furthermore, only one climate/need interaction was significant: the interaction between mastery motivational climate and perceived autonomy negatively predicts the adoption of performance-avoidance goals. This means that perceiving a mastery motivational climate reduces the adoption of performance-avoidance goals but only for students with high feelings of autonomy. Finally, pursuing mastery and performance-approach goals in physical education has a positive impact on students’ attitudes which, in turn, affect their habits in physical activity. Only the adoption of performance-approach goals has a direct positive relation with students’ habits in physical activity in general. In conclusion, physical education teachers can have a positive influence on students’ motivation and engagement during physical education classes—¬but also outside that environment—by promoting a mastery motivational climate and by satisfying their students’ competence need.

Magister Commercii (Industrial Psychology) - MCom(IPS) / The focus of this exploratory study was on competency profile development, specifically the factors impacting on the validity of its development. Given the paucity of research both nationally and internationally into the development of criteria feeding employment practices, as well as the conjectured enigmatic disjuncture between theory, which promotes the almost indispensability of job analysis, and organisational reality which attests to it seldom being performed or performed in a way which would satisfy scientific standards, a qualitative enquiry and a two tiered research design was developed to explore this phenomenon. Through excavating documentary data, the first phase of research intensively explored the work of the City of Cape Town's Competency Framework Team, their particular job analysis processes and their methodology for developing a competency profile for a single incumbent position, namely that of the City Manager's position. The medium of the case study allowed the reader to enter the world of a pulsing organisation and witness such researchers' dilemmas as contemplating whether there is a standard recipe for competency profile generation, the factors influencing choice of methodology, judgment around the relevancy of competencies developed to lead the change process, accurately responding to and managing dramatically skewed samples, the types of interventions to design, etc. The three key results from this phase of research confirmed that: the complexity of change within the City of Cape Town, as well as the types of decisions the various HR functions had to make on the basis of the profile, influenced decisions on how to profile and which methods to use; that stakeholders actively shaped the design and understanding of the particular components of the competency profile as they bring human volition to the areas of challenge arising within the organisation; and on the issue of whether racial composition of a sample was anticipated to have an effect on the competencies generated, it was clear that is not possible to ascertain whether the differences noticed in the behavioural repertoire of an individual are as a function of race or a myriad of other competing variables. The second phase of research studied the behavioural competencies elicited from a sample of Chief Executive Officers when using different job analysis methods to develop these competencies. The results confirmed that the distinctive features of a job analysis method selected or developed may impact on the behavioural competencies generated. These results not only sensitise practitioners to the role of methodology in influencing the derivation of competencies, but also to the many variables within, as well as between chosen methodologies, and to the reality that choice of methodology may influence the degree of confidence with which one interprets the results attained. The study concluded that despite this being a case study, limiting the conclusiveness and generalisability of its findings, the facets of the phenomenon of competency profiling illuminated may have much salience for the art and practice of profiling in general, for users and developers of job analysis processes, instruments, and leadership models, as well as practitioners entrusted with organisational design and redesign.

A qualitative research project was conducted to explore experiences of co-worker trust, relatedness and vitality through a short-term Music Therapy intervention designed to promote well-being. Thirteen adults who work at a branch of a South African bank in the Cape Winelands in the Western Cape Province of South Africa participated in the study. Six Music Therapy sessions were conducted in work time. Focus groups were conducted before and after the intervention. Data were generated by means of transcription of the focus groups, and thick description of selected Music Therapy session video clips. Data were analysed by means of content analysis through data-driven, open coding, followed by two levels of categorisation and theme extraction (Ansdell & Pavlicevic, 2001; Gibbs, 2007; Graneham & Lundman, 2004; Hsieh & Shannon, 2005; Punch, 1998). Findings suggest that participants experienced meaningful shifts in experience on all three of the identified focus construct dimensions, as well as on the dimensions of individual competence and autonomy. Further emerging questions were explored regarding the transferability of gains made in the Music Therapy space to the work context. It was proposed that increased experiences of autonomy, competence, and vitality in the therapy space supported the development of trust and enriched relatedness across both work and therapy contexts. Trust and relatedness gains were proposed to be longer-lasting. A progression of relatedness development phases was proposed, through which participants may have been able to achieve notable outcomes pertaining to improved communication, decreased conflict, increased cooperation and interpersonal support. / Dissertation (MMus)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / gm2014 / Music / unrestricted

The EU is faced with problems related to the unrestricted access to national welfare states of mobile EU workers. These problems are mainly framed by the growing opposition to the free movement of workers. The strongest contributing factor to these negative attitudes has commonly said to be actor-based, i.e. the media or political elites. However, more recent research has been shifting the focus to institutions as explanatory factor. I raise the question of to what extent individuals’ attitudes towards the free movement of workers are associated with their exposure to different welfare state institutional contexts. More specifically I explore the role of “earnings-relatedness” in specific social insurances for the attitudes of potential benefit claimants. Analyzing 12 EU/EFTA countries who are net receivers of mobile EU workers I find that in welfare state contexts with a high degree of earnings-relatedness the opposition to free movement is significantly lower than otherwise among the unemployed. Furthermore, I discover that these observations seem to vary depending on what part of the social insurance system one is analyzing.