Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are derived from the inner cell mass (ICM) of the blastocyst and have the capacity for unlimited proliferation while retaining their potential to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types when cultured in vitro. These properties have made of human embryonic stem cells (hESC) an excellent model on which to study the conditions required for differentiation into specific cell lineages, and consequently the possibility of transplanting specific cell types into damaged tissues. The continued turn over of ESC while maintaining an undifferentiated state is dependent on unusual cell cycle properties. These unusual proliferative properties are responsible for the generation of tumours when these cells are injected into adult animals. Thus, the study of the unusual proliferative properties of hESC needs to be addressed if their potential is to be realized. To date, most studies of the cell cycle in hESC have been descriptive, lacking functional studies that reveal the mechanisms of how the cell cycle maintains pluripotency and self- renewal of hESC. In this thesis we sought to understand the mechanisms of cell cycle control of hESC. We asked the question if a single cell cycle gene could regulate the self-renewal or pluripotency properties of hESC using a gain and loss of gene function strategy. We have identified that the protein expression of the p27Kip1 cell cycle inhibitor was low in human pluripotent cells, but its expression increased during differentiation together with changes in the cell cycle structure of pluripotent cells. By adopting a gain and loss of function strategy we increased or reduced its expression in undifferentiating conditions to define its functional role in self-renewal and pluripotency of Hesc, using undifferentiation conditions, overexpression of p27Kip1 in hESC lead to a G1 phase arrest with an enlarged and flattened hESC morphology and consequently loss of self-renewal ability. Loss of p27Kip1 caused an increase of self-renewal while maintaining an undifferentiated phenotype. Moreover, we have shown that a change in the balance of p27Kip1 levels in undifferentiated hESC affects expression of the mesoderm markers: BRACHYURY and TWIST. We have found that expression changes of TWIST are associated with the presence of p27Kip1 protein in the TWIST1 gene promoter. The results presented in this thesis have interesting implications in stem cell biology. Firstly, these results define that the maintenance of p27Kip1 protein levels at a certain level is essential for self-renewal and pluripotency of hESC. Secondly, p27Kip1 is involved in the regulation of TWIST which is upregulated in several types of tumours and induces an epithelial-mesenchymal transition to facilitate tumor metastasis. / Las células madre embrionarias humanas (conocidas como hESC por sus siglas en inglés de human embryonic stem cells) son derivadas de la masa celular interna de los blastocistos y poseen la capacidad para auto-renovarse ilimitadamente, reteniendo su potencial para diferenciarse hace una amplia variedad de tipos celulares (pluripotencia), cuando son cultivadas in vitro. Estas propiedades permiten el estudio de las condiciones requeridas para la diferenciación hacia linajes específicos y la posibilidad de trasplantar tipos celulares específicos en tejidos dañados. El continuo recambio de las hESC al mismo tiempo que mantienen un estado de indiferenciación es dependiente de sus inusuales propiedades proliferativas. El objetivo de esta tesis doctoral fue el estudio de los mecanismos de control del ciclo celular de las hESC. Nos preguntamos si una única proteína del ciclo celular podría regular las propiedades de auto-renovación o pluripotencia de las hESC. En esta tesis doctoral identificamos que la expresión proteica del inhibidor del ciclo celular p27Kip1 era baja en diversas líneas celulares humanas pluripotentes pero aumentó durante la diferenciación, al mismo tiempo que la estructura del ciclo celular cambió. Mediante una estrategia de ganancia y pérdida de función, aumentamos o reducimos la expresión de p27Kip1 a fin de definir su función en la auto-renovación y la pluripotencia de las hESC. En condiciones de indiferenciación, la sobreexpresión de p27Kip1 en las hESC resultó en un arresto del ciclo celular en fase G1 y un cambio hacia una morfología más grande y aplanada, y consiguiente pérdida de la propiedad de auto-renovación. La pérdida de p27Kip1 causó un aumento de la auto-renovación manteniendo un fenotipo indiferenciado. También, hemos demostrado que un cambio en la expresión de p27Kip1 en hESC indiferenciadas afecta la expresión de los reguladores de mesodermo: BRACHYURY y TWIST. Además, hemos descubierto que los cambios en la expresión de TWIST están asociados con la presencia de la proteína p27Kip1 en el promotor de TWIST1. Estos resultados definen que los niveles de expresión de p27Kip1 son críticos para la auto-renovación y la pluripotencia de las hESC y sugieren una función para p27Kip1 en el control de la transición de epitelio a mesénquima.

Κατά την ανάπτυξη ενός οργανισμού η απόκτηση εξειδικευμένων κυτταρικών λειτουργιών είναι μια προοδευτική διαδικασία η οποία περιλαμβάνει την ασύμμετρη διαίρεση των βλαστικών κυττάρων για την παραγωγή προγονικών κυττάρων τα οποία σταδιακώς εξέρχονται από τον κυτταρικό κύκλο και διαφοροποιούνται μέσω της εγκαθίδρυσης του κατάλληλου μεταγραφικού προγράμματος. Προκειμένου να κατανοήσουμε τη ρύθμιση αυτών των γεγονότων μελετήσαμε την Geminin, ένα κεντρικό ρυθμιστή του κυτταρικού κύκλου, στο ανοσοποιητικό σύστημα. Δημιουργήσαμε ζωικά μοντέλα στα οποία απενεργοποιήσαμε το γονίδιο της Geminin στα λεμφοκύτταρα. Τα αποτελέσματα μας έδειξαν ότι η απενεργοποίηση της Geminin στα λεμφοκύτταρα δεν επηρεάζει σημαντικά τη διαφοροποίηση των προγονικών Τ κυττάρων στο θύμο. Απουσία της Geminin τα προγονικά θυμοκύτταρα δεσμεύονται προς διαφοροποίηση στην Τ κυτταρική σειρά και παράγουν διαφοροποιημένα θυμοκύτταρα. Παρατηρήθηκαν μικρές μειώσεις στον αριθμό των DN1, DN4 και DP κυττάρων. Σε αντίθεση τα αθώα (naïve), ρυθμιστικά (regulatory) και Τ κύτταρα μνήμης (memory T cells), παρουσίασαν σημαντικές μειώσεις απουσία της Geminin. Επιπλέον βρήκαμε ότι ο πολλαπλασιασμός των περιφερικών Τ κυττάρων ύστερα από την ενεργοποίηση τους μέσω του TCR υποδοχέα παρουσίασε σημαντικές ανωμαλίες ενώ παρατηρήθηκαν και σημαντικές διαταραχές της προόδου του κυτταρικού κύκλου απουσία της Geminin. Οι μεταβολές που παρατηρήθηκαν στην έκφραση του Cdt1 και σε κυκλίνες των ενεργοποιημένων περιφερικών Τ κυττάρων μπορεί να εμπλέκονται στο μηχανισμό που εξηγεί τις διαταραχές των περιφερικών Τ κυττάρων απουσία της Geminin. Επίσης Τ κύτταρα από τα οποία είχε απενεργοποιηθεί η Geminin δεν είναι ικανά να αποικίσουν τα λεμφοειδή όργανα μυών από τους οποίους απουσιάζουν τα λεμφοκύτταρα, αποτέλεσμα το οποίο δείχνει διαταραχές του ομοιοστατικού πολλαπλασιασμού αυτών των κυττάρων. Συμπερασματικά η Geminin είναι απαραίτητη για την αυστηρή ρύθμιση των επαναλαμβανόμενων κυτταρικών διαιρέσεων των περιφερικών Τ κυττάρων αλλά δεν επηρεάζει σημαντικά την διαφοροποίηση των προγονικών Τ κυττάρων. Επιπλέον τα αποτελέσματα αυτά προτείνουν ότι υπάρχουν εγγενείς διαφορές στην ρύθμιση του κυτταρικού κύκλου μεταξύ θυμοκυττάρων και περιφερικών Τ κυττάρων. / During development, acquisition of specialized function is a progressive, gradual process that involves the asymmetric divisions of stem cells to generate progeny that will exit the cell cycle and terminally differentiate through the establishment of an appropriate transcriptional program. In order to understand this process we studied Geminin, a key cell cycle regulator, that has been shown to affect cellular decisions of differentiation. Towards this direction we focused on the immune system and investigated the role of Geminin in self-renewal and differentiation of stem and progenitor cells. In order to gain insight into the in vivo role of Geminin in progenitor cell division and differentiation, we have deleted Geminin in cells of the lymphoid lineage. The inactivation of Geminin in the lymphoid lineage does not alter progenitor T cell differentiation in the thymus. In the absence of Geminin progenitor T cells commit, differentiate and generate differentiated thymocytes. Minor reduction in the number of DN1, DN4 and DP progenitor T cells were observed. In contrast naïve, regulatory and memory peripheral T cells show a significant reduction in the absence of Geminin. Moreover, proliferation of Geminin deficient peripheral T cells upon TCR activation is severely compromised, accompanied by cell cycle progression defects. The deregulated protein levels of Cdt1 and cyclins in activated peripheral T cells lacking Geminin, may be involved in the mechanism responsible for the observed phenotype of Geminin deficient peripheral T cells. More importantly Geminin deficient T cells fail to repopulate lymphopenic hosts suggesting defects in homeostatic proliferation. In conclusion Geminin is essential to regulate the repeated divisions of peripheral T cells but does not significantly affect progenitor T cell differentiation. In addition our results suggest that there are intrinsic differences in cell cycle regulation of thymocytes and peripheral T cells.

Células tronco embrionárias (CTE) são capazes de proliferar indefinidamente mantendo a sua pluripotência, isto é, a capacidade de se diferenciar em diversos tipos celulares perante estímulos adequados. Esse potencial tem sido intensamente estudado, de modo a permitir a utilização dessas células em terapias de reposição celular. Trabalhos anteriores demonstraram que as proteínas kinases C (PKC) são importantes moduladores moleculares de cascatas de sinalização que levam ao processo de proliferação e auto-renovação das CTE. Porém o papel exato das diferentes isoenzimas das PKCs ainda não foi elucidado. Isso ocorre porque a família das PKCs é composta por pelo menos dez isoenzimas e apenas, recentemente, desenvolveram-se moduladores específicos para as diferentes isoenzimas, o que permitirá estudar o papel específico dessas quinases. No presente trabalho verificamos que a ativação da PKCδ induziu a proliferação de CTE indiferenciadas sem induzir a diferenciação das mesmas. Para tentar elucidar as vias de sinalização mediadas pela PKC&#948 que levam à proliferação das CTE indiferenciadas realizamos estudos de fosfoproteômica o que possibilitou a identificação de potenciais alvos diretos e indiretos da PKC&#948. Dentre os alvos identificados foram encontradas diversas proteínas relacionadas com proliferação, transcrição, tradução e resposta ao stress (chaperonas), contribuindo para a hipótese de que a ativação da PKCδ leva à proliferação das CTE indiferenciadas. Em diversos sistemas, a ativação da PKCδ leva à ativação da MAPK, em particular das ERK1/ 2, sendo essa via capaz de induzir a proliferação de diversas linhagens celulares. Identificamos diversas proteínas alvos da PKC&#948, que interagem também com componentes da via das MAPKs. Desta forma, verificamos a influência da ativação da PKC&#948 na via das MAPKs. De fato, a ativação da PKC&#948 na linhagem de CTE murinas indiferenciadas, E14TG2a, ativou a MEK, ERK1/ 2 e o fator de transcrição ELK-1. Como estudos anteriores demonstraram que a inibição da ERK1/ 2 mantém CTE indiferenciadas e que a ativação desta via poderia levar à diferenciação de CTE, investigamos a cinética de ativação da ERK pela PKC&#948. Demonstramos que a ativação da ERK pela PKC&#948 se da de modo transiente e que apesar da PKC&#948 não translocar para o núcleo, sua ativação induz a fosforilação e translocação nuclear da ERK, que atuará na fosforilação do fator de transcrição ELK-1. Desta forma, concluímos que a PKC&#948 induz a proliferação das CTE murinas indiferenciadas ativando transitoriamente a via das ERK1/ 2, que translocam para o núcleo fosforilando fatores de transcrição como a ELK1 e levando possivelmente ao aumento de proliferação dessas células. A ativação transiente das ERK1/ 2 pela PKC&#948 é importante para a auto-renovação das CTE. / Embryonic stem cells (ESC) are able of proliferating indefinitely maintaining their pluripotency, which is the capability to differentiate in different cell types upon appropriate stimuli. Pluripotency has been intensely investigated in order to allow the use of these cells in cellular replacement therapies. Previous work has demonstrated that the serine/ threonine kinases, such as, Protein kinases C (PKC) are important modulators of signaling cascades that lead to the process of proliferation and self-renewal of ESC. However, the exact role of the different PKC isoenzymes still remains to be elucidated. Due to the fact that the PKC family is composed of at least ten different isoenzymes and only recently isoenzyme specific modulators have been developed, which now allows the elucidation of these kinases roles. In the present work we verified that activation of PKC&#948 induced undifferentiated ESC have their proliferation rate increased. Trying to elucidate the signaling pathways mediated by PKC&#948 that lead to the proliferation increase we performed phosphoproteomic studies to identify potential PKC&#948 targets. Between the targets identified we found several proteins related with proliferation, protein transcription, translation and stress response (chaperones). These targets contributed to the hypothesis that PKC&#948 activation leads to undifferentiated ESC proliferation. In different cell lines, PKC&#948 activation leads to MAPK activation, through ERK1/ 2 activation, which are frequently involved with cellular proliferation. We also identified several targets of PKC&#948 that Interact with several components of MAPK`s signaling cascade. PKC&#948 activation in murine undifferentiated ESC line, E14TG2a, led to MEK, ERK1/ 2 and the transcription factor Elk-1 activation. Some articles demonstrate that the inhibition of ERK1/2 are responsible to maintains ESC undifferentiated and that it`s activation could lead to ESC differentiation. Analysing the kinetics of ERK activation in the ESC by PKC&#948, we show that ERK activation was transient and despite the fact that PKC&#948 does not translocated to the nucleus upon activation, but induces ERK activation and it`s nuclear translocation, where ERK could phosphorylate the transcription factor Elk-1. In conclusion PKC&#948 induces undifferentiated murine ESC proliferation increase by a transient ERK activation and it`s nuclear translocation.

有鑑於都市地區建築物老舊衰敗、避免重大災害發生、區域環境逐漸惡化以及復甦都市機能，政府自民國87年發布實施都市更新條例以來，迄今已20載，惟事業實施速度緩慢成效堪慮；以台北市為例，35年屋齡之老舊住宅幾達住宅存量之55%以上，目前所能更新者僅11,388戶(包含違建戶)，為總存量之1.12%而已，對於如何加快都更速度已廣為各方關注；然近年來若干都市更新事業之實施糾紛頻傳，以致各界議論紛紛，評論不斷；本研究之宗旨無意再行發掘更多潛藏問題與實施障礙，乃針對台北市所存11,219戶屋齡超過40餘年重建迫切之整建住宅，就20年來專家學者之評論、理論基礎、文獻回顧、實務案例等所生之影響因素，加以綜合整理，藉由邏輯性的統計分析，冀能釐清都更事業實施過程中住戶及專家所關切之關鍵影響因素之相對關係，俾便有助於供各界參考。 本研究以台北市中正區某整建住宅實施都市更新重建事業為實例，就文獻回顧之理論基礎、法律規範之要件及程序、透過實務訪談與問卷調查方式，探討影響『整建住宅自力更新』之評估準則與指標要素，歸納為「法規制度面」、「共識整合面」、「分配制度面」、「規劃設計面」、「財務金融面」等五項評估準則，並由實務訪談延伸「法規明確易行」等二十個影響要素，依此建置層級架構，運用「分析網絡程序法，ANP」進行定量定性分析，其間輔以專家決策分析軟體（Expert Choice 2000版）及運用微軟Excel軟體2010版，進行問卷調查統計分析。 問卷調查結果分析整宅自力更新首重評估準則為「分配制度面」、權重為24.60%，在五項準則中約占整體權重四分之一比例；而影響要素中指標整體優先排序最高為「公平公開的分配方式」8.23%，達平均權重值5%之1.65倍之多，無論專家或住戶咸認都市更新後所創造的再發展價值應以公平公開方式進行再分配為優先選項，其後另二優先指標為「第三部門介入輔導」及「信任關係」的建立，其要素權重分別為8.13%及6.33%，對於繁雜的都市更新重建事項，住戶顯示專業弱勢地位，亟需公正第三方部門進行介入輔導；而團體中住戶領導者的無私奉獻將有助於群體中產生信任、凝聚向心力，順利推動以再開發利潤為共同資源、社區重建為目標的集體行動-都市更新事業之開展。 研究建議在類屬整建住宅等相對弱勢居住族群區域中進行都市更新重建事業時，應優先考慮以公平公開方式進行分配更新後價值，藉由公辦都更抑或自組更新會方式實施皆屬之。由於相對經濟弱勢族群之都更相關專業知識欠缺，應藉由第三公正單位積極介入進行輔導，以導正部分錯誤訊息與觀念。而財務金融面之強化將有助於都更得以順利推動實施，主要在於融資貸款興建成本費用之廉價取得，並藉由信託機制以保障重建事業得以完成。關於後續之研究建議繼續進行後半部實施決策之選擇分析，以完整(整宅)都市更新實施方式決策之分析。對於統計操作之建議為：於各影響評估準則中，慎選具指標性之相同個數影響要素以進行問卷調查，以免優先權重遭遇稀釋之疑慮以致結果數據難以客觀相互比較；篩選指標要素亦不宜繁多，期評比者免於評斷疲累以致統計數據之信、效度頓減。 / In view of the old decay of buildings in urban areas, to avoid the occurrence of major disasters, the gradual deterioration of regional environment and the revival of urban functions, the fulfillment so far has been 20 years since the enforcement of the Urban Renewal Ordinance in 1998, but the slow pace of its implementation have been worried; in Taipei City, for example, the old building over 35 year-old scales housing stock 55% above, up to now which can be rebuilt amounts only 11,388 households including some of illegal’s, for the total stock of 1.12% only. How to accelerate the urban renewal has been widely concerned, but in recent years, several renewal implementation disputes emerged, making controversies constant; The purpose of this study intends no longer to explore more potential problems and obstacles of implementation, but aims the 11,219 resettled tenements in Taipei, aged more than 40 years old and being urgently reconstructed, Integrates the reviews of theories, literature and practices to find out the influential factors of the renewal implementation. Through logical statistical analysis, try to clarify the relative relationship between the key factors of concern to the residents and experts in the process of implementation, so as to facilitate the reference to the field of urban renewal. This study takes an project of the urban renewal and reconstruction in Zhong-zheng District of Taipei City as an example, based on the theories of literature review, the elements and procedures of the legal, and through practical interviews and questionnaires, this study explores the influential criteria and indicators of the "Urban Renewal", and concludes the five criteria of "legal institution", "consensus integration", "allocation system", "planning and design" and "financial support". Besides, from the practical interviews, it derives "clarity and feasibility of the regulations" and other 19 factors. According to these factors, it organizes the hierarchy, and using the "Analysis of Network Process, ANP" for quantitative and qualitative analysis, while supplemented by analysis software of Expert Choice 2000 and Microsoft Excel 2010, carries on statistical analysis of the questionnaire survey. According to analysis results, it appears the first priority criteria to be "allocation system" weighting 24.6%, about one-fourth proportion of the overall weight of five criteria, and it’s main factors "fair and open distribution method" weights 8.23% , priors to all the others, up to 1.65 times the average value of 5.0%. Ether experts or residents recognize the value of the redevelopment created by urban renewal should be redistributed in a fair and open manner. The subsequent two priorities show "intervention and guidance of third party" and "the erecting of trust relationship", the weight for each is 8.13% and 6.33% respectively. For complex urban renewal reconstruction matters, the residents acknowledge the professional deficiency, the urgent need for counseling of impartial third party, and the community leaders with the selfless dedication will help to generate trust, cohesion, and smoothly promote such a collective action with the redeveloping benefits for common resources and community reconstruction as the goal. This study suggests that in the case of urban renewal and redevelopment in areas of relatively disadvantaged living groups such as the Resettled Tenements, priority of the influential factors should be given to “fair and open distribution method”, with government implementation or self-renewal will be accomplished either. The lack of expertise for the disadvantaged residences could be guided by a third impartial organization to modify some of the error messages and inappropriate concepts. The enhanced financial measures will help smoothly implementing the project also, the main reason lies in the low cost of construction financing, and the guarantee of the reconstruction completion by trust mechanism. The follow up study should be suggested to continuously study the second half of the decision-making to carry out the choice of analysis of urban renewal as a whole. The suggestion for statistical operations is to carefully select the representative same number of influential factors in each criteria for conducting the survey, so as to avoid any weight dilution and cause difficulty for objective comparison with each other.

To find out if the haematopoietic system is common feature of vertebrates, we decided to examine haematopoiesis in a sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus). All blood cells arises from the haematopoietic stem cells in higher vertebrates. We assume that this is common for the higher vertebrates and a jawless vertebrates, but nobody was interested in the jawless haematopoiesis since 1970. Using a reverse genetic, we identify homologues of important hematopoietic of higher vertebrates in transcriptome of the sea lamprey with emphasis on important receptors or transcription factors, because they can be used as the specific markers of different blood cells and their progenitors. Then we use those sequences for cloning, expression measurements and other work. We picked up sea lamprey as model organism because its unique phylogenetic position, important foe evo-devo studies, but also because lack of elementary knowledge about sea lamprey haematopoiesis. Key words: Petromyzon marinus, haematopoiesis, HSC, evo-devo

Les cellules souches embryonnaires de souris (mESC) présentent un cycle cellulaire atypique caractérisé par l'absence d'une voie Rb fonctionnelle et la forte expression de la cycline E pendant toutes les phases du cycle cellulaire. En conséquence, les mESC sont constitutivement amorcées pour la réplication de l'ADN. Pour comprendre comment la cycline E, un régulateur clé de la transition de la phase G1 à S, est régulée dans les mESC, nous avons analysé la régulation transcriptionnelle de son gène Ccne1 par des facteurs de transcription du réseau de pluripotence naïve. Nous avons observé que les facteurs Esrrb, Klf4 et Tfcp2l1 se lient à la région du promoteur de Ccne1 sur plusieurs sites situés entre 0 et 1kb en amont du site d'initiation de la transcription. Un test luciférase nous a permis de monter qu'une mutation de ces sites de liaison diminue ou abolie l'activité transcriptionnelle du promoteur. De plus, la surexpression inductible à la doxycycline des facteurs Esrrb, Klf4 et Tfcp2l1 augment le niveau d'expression d'ARNm de Ccne1. Ces résultats suggèrent que Esrrb, Klf4 et Tfcp2l1 contrôlent l'expression de la cycline E. Ils mettent en évidence un lien direct entre le réseau de pluripotence naïve et la régulation du cycle mitotique dans les mESC. Nous avons utilisé le système rapporteur FUCCI pour étudier en fonction du cycle cellulaire l'expression des facteurs de transcription qui forment le réseau de pluripotence naïve. Nous avons observé que l'expression de Esrrb, Klf4, Tfcp2l1 et Nanog oscille au cours du cycle cellulaire avec une diminution de l'expression entre la phase G1 précoce et le début de S, puis une ré-augmentation entre le début de S et la phase G2/M. Ces résultats suggèrent que le réseau de pluripotence naïve est déstabilisé transitoirement lors du passage de la phase G1 à la phase S du cycle cellulaire / Mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) display an unorthodox cell cycle characterised by the lack of a functional Rb pathway and robust expression of cyclin E during all cell cycle phases. Therefore, mESCs are constitutively primed for DNA replication. To understand how cyclin E, a key regulator of the G1-to-S phase transition, is regulated in mESCs, we analysed the transcriptional regulation of Ccne1 by transcription factors of the naive pluripotency network. We observed that Esrrb, Klf4 and Tfcp2l1 bound the Ccne1 promoter region on multiple sites between 0 and 1kb upstream transcription start site. Disrupting the binding sites reduced or abolished transcriptional activity in a luciferase assay. Moreover, the doxycyclin-inducible expression of Essrb, Klf4 and Tfcp2l1 up-regulated the Ccne1 mRNA level. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that Essrb, Klf4 and Tfcp2l1 control Cyclin E expression and highlight a direct connection between the naïve pluripotency network and regulation of the mitotic cycle in mESCs. We used the FUCCI reporter system to study cell-cycle dependent expression of the transcription factors that form the naïve pluripotency network. Esrrb, Klf4, Tfcp2l1 and Nanog expression oscillated during the cell cycle with a down-regulated expression between the early G1-phase and the beginning of S-phase, and then up-regulated expression between the beginning of S-phase and the G2/M-phase. These results suggest that the naive pluripotency network is destabilized transiently during the transition from the G1-phase to the S-phase of the cell cycle

Algumas das estratégias utilizadas para entender a biologia de células tronco embrionária (CTE) são baseadas na identificação de cascatas de sinalização que induzem a diferenciação e auto-renovação das CTE através da interferência seletiva de processos específicos. A família das proteínas quinase C (PKC) é conhecida por participar dos processos de auto-renovação e diferenciação celular em CTE, entretanto, o papel específico das diferentes isoenzimas das PKCs ainda precisa ser elucidado. Desta forma investigamos. o papel das PKCs atípicas (aPKCs) em CTE indiferenciadas utilizando um inibidor específico para estas serina/ treonina quinases, o peptídeo pseudossubstrato das aPKCs, e fosfoproteômica. A maioria das proteinas identificadas cuja fosforilação reduziu após o tratamento com o inibidor das aPKC, são proteínas envolvidas com o metabolismo principalmente com a via glicolítica. Além disso, a inibição das aPKCs levou a redução do consumo de glicose, secreção de lactato, acompanhada da redução da atividade da lactato desidrogenase, e aumento da fosforilação oxidativa, sendo analisada através do consumo de oxigênio após o tratamento com oligomicina e FCCP. Verificamos também que as aPKCs são capazes de fosforilar diretamente a piruvato quinase. A glicólise aeróbica parece ser fundamental para a manutenção da indiferenciação das CTE, e demonstramos que as aPKCs participam deste processo auxiliando na auto-renovação das CTE indiferenciadas. Também observamos que as aPKCs assim como a PKCβI modulam a fosforilação da α-tubulina, porém ao passo que as aPKCs interagem com a α-tubulina durante a interfase, a PKCβI interage com a mesma apenas durate a mitose. Estes resultados motivaram a segunda parte da tese, na qual o papel da fosforilação da α-tubulina pela PKCβI foi investigado. O resíduo de treonina 253, conservado em diversas espécies de vertebrados e localizado na interface de polimerização entre a α- e a β-tubulina foi identificado, como um novo sítio de fosforilação da α-tubulina pela PKCβI. Este sítio não está em um consenso linear para a PKC, entretanto é um consenso formado estruturalmente, onde aminoácidos básicos distantes na sequência linear se tornam justapostos na estrutura terciária da proteína. Estudos de simulação por dinâmica molecular demonstraram que a interação entre a α e β-tubulina aumenta após esta fosforilação, uma vez que T253 fosforilada passa a interagir com K105, um residuo conservado na β-tubulina. A fosforilação in vitro de α-tubulina aumenta a taxa de polimerização da tubulina e a inibição da PKCβI em células reduziu a taxa de repolimerização do microtubulo após o tratamento com nocodazol. Além disso, a importância da fosforilação deste sítio foi demonstrada pelo fato de que um mutante fosfomimético GFP-α-tubulina, T253E ser mais incorporado no fuso mitótico ao passo que T253A foi menos incorporado do que a proteína selvagem. Nossos dados suportam a hipótese que os consensos estruturais formados podem ser importantes sítios de reconhecimento pelas quinases e que a fosforilação de T253 da α-tubulina afeta a estabilidade do polímero. Em conclusão, utilizando métodos de fosfoproteômica e interferência seletiva de vias de sinalização, combinados a validações experimentais dos alvos identificados podemos propor a importância funcional das aPKCs e PKCβI em CTE indiferenciadas. / Some of the strategies used to understand stem cell biology are based on the identification of signalling cascades that lead to differentiation and self-renewal of embryonic stem cells (ESC) by selective interference of specific signalling processes. The protein kinase C (PKC) family is known to participate in ESC self-renewal and differentiation, however, the specific role of the different PKC isoenzymes in these cells remains to be determined. Therefore, we investigated the role of atypical PKCs (aPKC) in undifferntiated ESC using a specific inhibitor for these serine/ threonine kinases, pseudo-substrate peptide of aPKCs, and phosphoproteomics. The majority of proteins whose phosphorylation decreased upon aPKC inhibition, are proteins involved in metabolism in particular with the glycolytic pathway. Besides that, inhibiton of aPKCs led to a decrease in glucose uptake and lactate secretion, followed by a decrease in lactate dehydrogenase activity, and an increase in mitochondrial activity as measured by oxygen consumption after treatment with olygomycin and a chemical uncoupler. We also verified that aPKCs are able to directly phosphorylated pyruvate kinase. Aerobic glicolysis seems to be fundamental for the maintainance of undifferentiated ESC, and we demonstrated that aPKCs participte in these processes helping to maintain self-renewal of undifferentiated ESC. We also observed that aPKCs as PKCβI modulate the phosphorylation of α-tubulin, however, while aPKCs interact with α-tubulin during interfase PKCβI interacts with α-tubulin only during mitosis. These results lead to the second part of this thesis. We investigated the role of α-tubulina phosphorylation by PKCβI. Indentifying threonine 253, a conserved residue in several vertebrate species, of localized at the polymerization interface between α- and β-tubulin, as a phosphorylation site of α-tubulin by PKCβI. This site is not in a linear consensus for PKC, however, it is in a structuraly formed consensus, where basic aminoacids distant in the linear sequence are juxtaposed in the three dimentional protein structure. Simulation studies by molecular dynamics show that the interaction between α and β-tubulin increases upon this phosphorylation, once, phosphorylated T253 interacts with com K105, a conserved residue in β-tubulin. The in vitro phosphorylation of α-tubulin increased tubulin polymerization rate and inhibiton of PKCβI in cells reduced repolimeration rate of microtubles upon treatment with nocodazole. Besides that, the importance of this phosphorylation site were demonstrated by the fact that a phosphomimetic mutant GFP-α-tubulina, T253E is more incorporated in mitotic fuses while T253A is less than wild type. Our data support the hypothesis that structural consensus may be important sites recognized and that T253 phosphorylation of α-tubulin afects the polymer stability. In conclusion, using phosphoproteomics methods and selective interference of signal transduction pathways combined with experimental validation studies of the identified targets we can propose roles for aPKCs and PKCβI in undifferentiated ESC.

Activée par la chimiothérapie, la sénescence est un mécanisme suppresseur de tumeur qui bloque la progression tumorale. Cependant, des cellules cancéreuses sont capables d’échapper à cette pression ce qui provoque une rechute clinique. Nous avons récemment décrit que les cellules émergentes acquièrent la capacité de résister à l’anoïkis et dépendent de Mcl-1. Cette voie de survie est activée par la kinase Akt qui inhibe la protéine Noxa et l’apoptose. L’une des caractéristiques de la sénescence est l’apparition d’un phénotype sécrétoire appelé SASP qui peut induire des effets délétères aux cellules voisines. Dans cette étude nous avons observé que le sécrétome des cellules persistantes induit la résistance à l’anoïkis, la migration et l’invasion des cellules parentales. Des études de protéomique réalisées au laboratoire ont montré que laTSP-1 est surexprimée dans les stades avancés de tumeurs de patients du sein et du colon. Lors de la persistance, la TSP-1 et son récepteur CD47 sont exprimés plus fortement par les cellules sénescentes. Le blocage de la TSP-1 ou de sa liaison à CD47 augmente l’émergence et induit la formation de sphéroïdes traduisant une augmentation de la proportion de cellules souches. Les facteurs d’auto-renouvellement Nanog etKlf4 sont induits précocement en réponse au traitement. Suite à l’inactivation de CD47 ou à une stimulation avec laTSP-1, l’expression de Nanog est bloquée. L’inhibition de Nanog ou de Klf4 diminue l’émergence. Ainsi, dans les cellules sénescentes, CD47 activerait le mécanisme d’auto-renouvellement et favoriserait l’émergence. En seliant, la TSP-1 bloquerait ces mécanismes et agirait comme un suppresseur de tumeur. / Activated by chemotherapy, senescence is a suppressive mechanism that prevents tumor progression. However some cancer cells can emerge and induce clinical relapse. We have recently described that emergent cells resist toanoikis and depend on Mcl-1. This survival pathway is activated by Akt kinase that inhibits Noxa and apoptosis. One of the caracteristics of senescence is the appearance of the secretory phenotype called SASP that can induce deleterious effects to neighboring cells. In this study, we observed that the secretome of persistant cells induces anoïkis resistance, migration and invasion of parental cells. Proteomics analysis performed at laboratory showed that TSP-1 is over expressed in advanced stages of colon and breast tumors. During persistance, TSP-1 and its receptor CD47 are more expressed by senescent cells. Blockade of TSP-1 or its binding on CD47 increases persistence and induces spheroïds generation showing an increase in the proportion of stem cells. Self-renewal factors Nanog and Klf4 are early expressed following treatment. Following CD47 inactivation or stimulation withTSP-1, the expression of Nanog is blocked. The inhibition of Nanog or Klf4 reduces emergence. So, in senescent cells, CD47 could activate self-renewal and could promote emergence. By linking to its receptor, TSP-1 could block these processes et coud act as a tumor suppressor.

Le tissu adipeux (TA) est réparti dans tout le corps en différents dépôts. Il existe deux types distincts aux fonctions biens spécifiques : le tissu adipeux blanc sert de réservoir énergétique et stocke les lipides et le tissu adipeux brun permet la thermogénèse. Par ses fonctionnalités et son pouvoir endocrine, le TA assure le maintien de l’homéostasie énergétique. De graves désordres métaboliques résultent d’une surabondance retrouvée au cours de l’obésité ou lors d’un remodelage dans les lipodystrophies. Certaines ont une origine génétique, d’autres sont induites par des médicaments comme les inhibiteurs de la protéase (IP) du VIH administrés dans la thérapie antirétrovirale. Le pool de progéniteur adipeux (PA) présent dans chaque dépôt est essentiel au maintien de ce tissu car il permet de renouveler le stock d’adipocytes. Nous avons caractérisé et identifié de nouveaux gènes impliqués dans la boucle autocrine/paracrine de l’activineA qui est responsable de l’auto-renouvellement du pool de PA dont IER3. Son expression augmente chez les patients obèses et diminue sous traitement par les IP. La modélisation des différents dépôts montre que les IP inhibent préférentiellement l’auto-renouvellement ou la différenciation adipocytaire des PA en fonction de leur localisation. Les lipodystrophies induites par la thérapie antirétrovirale auraient des causes multifactorielles. Enfin, nos résultats révèlent que les IP diminuent drastiquement et sélectivement la production d’adipocytes bruns. Ces effets doivent être considérés dans un contexte de développement inopportun du tissu adipeux brun afin de corriger des désordres métaboliques associés à certaines pathologies. / The adipose tissue (AT) is distributed throughout the body in different depots. There are two distinct types with specific functions: the white adipose tissue is used as an energetic reservoir and stores the lipids whereas the brown adipose tissue allows the thermogenesis. By its functionalities and its endocrinal capacity, the AT ensures the energetic homeostasis maintenance. Severe metabolic disorders result from an excess found during obesity or a remodelling in the lipodystrophies. Some of them have a genetic origin, the others are induced by drugs such as the HIV-protease inhibitors (PI) administered in the antiretroviral therapy against HIV. The adipose progenitor (AP) pool present in each depot is necessary for the maintenance of this tissue because it allows to renew the adipocyte stock. We characterized and identified new genes involved in the autocrine/paracrine Activin A loop which is responsible for AP pool self-renewal of whom is IER3. Its expression increases in obese patients and decreases under PI treatment. The modelling of the different depots shows that PI inhibit preferentially PA self-renewal or adipose differentiation depending on their localisation. Thus, lipodystrophies induced by antiretroviral therapy would have multifactorial causes. Finally, our results reveal PI dramatically and selectively reduce the brown adipocyte production. These effects should be considered in the context of inappropriate brown adipose tissue development in order to correct metabolic disorders associated to some pathologies.

The regulation of muscle stem cell (MuSC) asymmetric division plays an essential role in controlling the growth and repair of skeletal muscle. Perturbations in MuSC function have been demonstrated in disease and aging contexts such as Duchenne’s Muscular Dystrophy (DMD) and sarcopenia. We developed and optimized a high content analysis platform combining lineage tracing, myofiber culture, imaging, and bioinformatic analysis to determine modulators of muscle stem cell division. We discover kinase domain receptor (KDR) as a positive modulator of MuSC asymmetric division and confirmed its expression in satellite cells by ddPCR and immunofluorescence. Knockdown of KDR significantly reduces the numbers of asymmetric divisions, whereas ligand stimulation of KDR increases the numbers of asymmetric divisions. KDR signaling is impaired in dystrophin- deficient satellite cells and requires a polarized cell environment established by the dystrophin glycoprotein complex (DGC) to direct asymmetric division. Mice lacking KDR in MuSCs exhibit reduced numbers of satellite cells due to precocious differentiation, and deficits in regeneration consistent with impaired asymmetric division and reduced generation of progenitors. Therefore, our experiments identify KDR signaling as playing an essential role in MuSC function in muscle regeneration. These findings further our understanding of muscle stem cell biology, and in particular, the role of asymmetric division under homeostatic and regenerative conditions.