Denna studie utgår från en undersökning om hur elever i grundskolans årskurs 4 – 6 uppfattar jämställdhet och vilka erfarenheter eleverna har av jämställdhet respektive ojämställdhet. Jämställdhet diskuteras aktivt i samhället och berör alla människor, vuxna som barn. Barnen bör få vara delaktiga i det jämställdhetsarbete som är igång. Trots detta har jag endast hittat lite forskning kring hur just barn tänker om jämställdhet. Därför utgår denna uppsats ifrån just barns perspektiv på jämställdhet. Syftet med studien är därför att undersöka elevers perspektiv på jämställdhet för att förstå hur eleverna uppfattar området för att vidare kunna involvera eleverna ytterligare i jämställdhetsarbetet. Metoden för insamlingen av empirin är gruppintervjuer där elever indelats i grupper för att diskutera förberedda frågor om jämställdhet. Eleverna har i grupperna diskuterat de olika frågorna och sett en film om jämställdhet som senare också diskuterats. Under aktiviteten har jag antagit en passiv roll större delen av tiden. Eleverna visar att de är väl medvetna om jämställdhet och genusfrågor och har många olika erfarenheter av ojämställda händelser i deras skolvardag. Samtliga elever tycker det är viktigt att jobba med området i skolan för att göra varandra, både barn och vuxna, medvetna om hur man agerar i vardagen utifrån vissa stereotypiska könsmönster och könsroller. Eleverna upplever att de själva har blivit väldigt påverkade och uttrycker traditionella könsmönster på flera olika sätt exempelvis genom att anta att pojkar spelar bättre fotboll eller att flickor är lugnare. Pojkarna upplever sig själva som roligare medan flickorna uppfattar dem som att de måste skämta för att upprätthålla en social, konstruerad roll. / The purpose of the study is to investigate what pupils in primary school’s grades’ 4 – 6 think about gender equality and what experiences they have of both gender equality and inequality. Gender equality is currently being discussed in society and all people are affected by it, adults as well as children. The children should be able to be involved in the contemporary work about equality. Even so, I have found few studies about how children think about this. Therefore, this essay is based on their perspective. Following the purpose of this essay is to learn about pupils’ perspective on gender equality in order to involve them more in the future in this important matter. The method that is being used to collect the information is group interviews where pupils have been divided into groups to discuss questions about gender equality. In these groups the pupils have discussed different questions and then watched a movie on the topic of equality that later was discussed. During the activity I took on a passive role most of the time. The pupils show that they are well aware of gender equality and questions about gender and they have many different inequality experiences of incidents from there school days. All the pupils think it is important to work with these questions in school to make each other, both adults and children, aware of how you normally tend to act based on stereotypical gender patterns. The pupils experience that they themselves have been affected by stereotypes and express several traditional gender patterns, for example by assuming that boys are better at soccer or that girls are generally calmer. The boys experience themselves as funnier while the girls assume that the boys must joke around more to uphold a socially, constructed role.

The purpose of this qualitative study is to investigate how social science teachers perceive and express the concept of society in social studies. The study consists of focus group interviews with nine social science teachers at two upper secondary schools and its results are analyzed against the theoretical backdrop of Odenstad's orientation topics, analytical subjects and discussion topics and Sandahl’s first-order and second-order concepts. In short, the two different conceptual devices can be described as the skills and abilities that are most important for the students to master in order to develop advanced thinking skills in social science. Particular emphasis is put on critical thinking, that is, the ability to seek, structure and evaluate information from different sources and to draw conclusions from this process. The emerging results show a certain consensus on the concept of society among social science teachers as the potential subject of study and analysis that would simplify and clarify the analyses of the different levels in society which, in turn, would contribute to adding significance and bringing cohesion to the subject as a whole. As for the skills and abilities that stem from Odenstad's orientation topics and Sandahl’s first-order concepts, the interviewed teachers all emphasize conceptual ability as well as good external knowledge to have knowledge of how society is made up. With reference to Odenstad's analytical subject and discussion topics and Sandahl's second-order concepts, it would seem that it is not only important but a prerequisite that students develop an analytical ability and critical thinking as well as the ability to sift through and process large amounts of information and assume different perspectives on the topic or issue at hand.

Esta dissertação tem o objetivo de investigar o cinema de propaganda política produzido por duas associações de caráter ideológico, entre os anos 1961 e 1964: o Instituto de Pesquisas e Estudos Sociais (Ipês), dirigido principalmente por ricos empresários liberais e anticomunistas; e o Centro Popular de Cultura (CPC da UNE), constituído por jovens artistas influenciados pelas idéias marxistas. Para tanto, busquei articular informações provenientes da análise intrínseca de seus filmes com as do contexto histórico em que foram feitos e exibidos e, em especial, as extraídas da documentação a que tive acesso, com o intuito, então, de compreender os modelos cinematográficos aos quais essas obras se alinharam. Ao estudar como ipesianos e cepecistas foram adversários em meio às instabilidades de um Brasil próximo ao Golpe de 1964, foi possível constatar como os dois grupos financiaram a atividade cinematográfica com a expectativa de intervir nos rumos socioeconômicos e culturais do país a partir de projetos conflitantes que, por um lado, pretendiam fortalecer o poder da elite com um capitalismo de base liberal e, por outro, romper com as estruturas de poder capitalistas. Nesse sentido, mesmo com essas divergências, a pesquisa demonstra como ambos utilizaram um discurso próximo em suas filmografias, repleto de similaridades, que se manifesta no uso de técnicas e linguagens idênticas, como é o caso das experiências estéticas didáticas e das representações do povo com a finalidade de concretizar um programa ideológico para a nação. Assim, esse mestrado procura defender a hipótese de que, mesmo politicamente opositores, Ipês e CPC manusearam um referencial cinematográfico com diversas semelhanças. / The present dissertation aims the investigation of the political propaganda film industry production between 1961 and 1964 by two ideological character associations: the Instituto de Pesquisas e Estudos Sociais Ipês (Research and Social Studies Institute), managed especially by liberal and anticommunist rich businessmen; and the Centro Popular de Cultura CPC da UNE (Culture Popular Center), constituted of young artists influenced by marxist ideas. And to do so, I tried to join information provided by the intrinsic analysis of their films and the historic context in which they were produced and released and, especially, the information taken from the documentation I had access to, with the purpose of understanding the cinematographic models to which these films attached. By studying how ipesianos (term used to refer to the members of Ipês) and cepecistas (term used to refer to the members of CPC) were opponents in the instable Brazil near the 1964 coup detat, it was possible to observe how both groups financed their cinematographic activity, expecting to exercise some influence on the country cultural and socioeconomic course, by producing conflicting projects intended to, on the one hand, strengthen the power elite by supporting liberal based capitalism, and on the other hand, bring the capitalist power structures to an end. Nevertheless, even showing divergences, this research makes evident how both groups made use of analogue methodology on their filmographies, full of similarities, expressed in their identical techniques and languages, which can be seen in their didactical esthetic experiences and representations of the people with the purpose of concretize an ideological program for the nation. Therefore, the main goal of this masters degree is to support the hypothesis that, even being politically opposite, Ipês and CPC made use of very similar cinematographic referential.

Economics plays a significant role in decision-making in contemporary western societies, but its role is increasingly questioned. A recurring topic among the challenges raised by critics is that economics as a discipline lacks sufficient pluralism. That is, it fails to enable, encourage, and respect the use of different ontologies, methodologies, theories, and/or schools of thought to study economic reality. Has this been a productive critique? Does talk about pluralism help identify genuine problems in the discipline? Pluralism in economics could draw support from the current consensus in philosophy that pluralism in science is a good thing. I argue, however, that the claim that economic research is insufficiently pluralist is unlikely to convince economists who believe economics is already pluralist enough and that it does not offer unambiguous recommendations for change. This is because there are too many legitimate ways to interpret how pluralism maps to practice. There are numerous variables that pluralist ideals might focus on-the things that they seek multiple rather than one of-and different interpretations of how many of those variables economics has in practice. Yet, as I go on to argue, this does not mean that talk of pluralism is entirely beside the point, since the reasons pluralists offer for their ideals do help to identify genuine problems in economics. The social epistemic strategies that arguments for pluralism recommend point us to three concrete issues in the way economic research is organised: gender imbalances, a steep internal hierarchy, and a dismissive attitude to outsiders. I show that economic research could be more progressive, representative of the interests of those in society, accepted, and legitimate and less likely to fall into bias if the discipline alleviated its gender imbalances, if it were less hierarchical, and if it had a healthier relationship with outsiders. In chapter 1, I outline the debate about pluralism in economics and explain how my thesis utilises a novel approach to social epistemology to offer a way out of the impasse in which that the debate presently resides. In chapter 2, I explain the different philosophical arguments for pluralism in science and categorise them using the variables they focus on and the reasons they give for pluralism. In chapter 3, I argue that interpreting pluralism as a particular arrangement of variables for economics to attain does not lead to unambiguous recommendations for change because it leaves too much open. Yet, I go on to argue, in chapter 4, that drawing on the reasons for pluralism can provide a set of heuristics for piecemeal evaluations of the social epistemic practices in economics. In chapters 5, 6, and 7, I apply these heuristics to economics. I provide evidence that [a] women are outnumbered in economics and face an adverse environment in the discipline, that [b] economics is steeply hierarchical, and that [c] economists form an in-group that assumes superiority and frequently dismisses outside voices. I argue that these three features of economic research block avenues for productive forms of feedback (mechanisms that help to challenge, justify, and refine scientific knowledge), block the interests of certain perspectives being heard, and block public scrutiny of the decisions made by economists.

Depuis les années 2000 il y a eu des amplifications et des intensifications de la communauté de chercheurs/euses et des outils scientifiques engagés dans l’Éducation Physique (EP). Ce processus s’est produit/se produit dans diverses tensions qui ont commencé à être problématisées dans des études et des débats. Incitée par ce processus et ces problématisations, je me suis approchée des Études Sociales de la Science et de la Technologie, qui ont permis la réalisation de cette recherche, guidée par la question suivante: de quelle façon fait-on la science dans l’EP Brésilienne? Pour la répondre, j’ai fait une étude ethnographique auprès de deux groupes de recherche de l’EP, ayant une durée d’environ un an et quatre mois dans chacun, où j’ai suivi des humains et des non-humains, des associations et des controverses. En accompagnant/vivant le quotidien de ces groupes je suis arrivée à la conclusion qu’il y a de multiples sciences en EP. Il a été possible d’identifier que, dans la pratique, la science de l’EP est celle développée: par des scientifiques qui s’intéressent au domaine des sciences exactes; travaillant à plein temps comme chercheurs/euses dans le laboratoire; avec l’utilisation des outils technologiques; avec l’établissement de rapports avec des entreprises privées, avec des réponses à des questions sur des comparaisons de forces, de moments de force et d’exercices; avec des méthodologies scientifiques qui offrent des réponses à la question ‘comment va-t-on mesurer (?)’; avec l’utilisation de logiciels qui traduisent en nombres les résultats obtenus dans différents tests et équipements; avec l’analyse statistique; et avec de nombreux processus de ‘purifications’. Au-delà de celle-ci, la science de l’EP est aussi celle qui est développée: par des scientifiques qui sont professeurs d’EP dans l’enseignement scolaire; basée sur des questions concernant l’éducation; visant ‘comprendre’; avec des expériences acquises dans les écoles; avec des méthodologies qualitatives de recherche; avec des outils méthodologiques qui permettent de ‘donner la voix’ aux professeurs et aux élèves enquêtés; avec des décisions sur les ‘catégories d’analyses’; avec des résultats dans le format d’un texte descriptif et herméneutique, avec des repères qui ‘est un texte pour l’univers académique’; avec des descriptions ‘sur qui’ et ‘où’ les faits scientifiques ont été construits; et en se plaçant en tension avec une science historiquement hégémonique dans l’EP. Face à ces constatations j’ai commencé à comprendre/proposer qu’on fasse de la science dans l’EP Brésilienne à partir de différentes ontologies, celles qui, d’après les espaces/temps où elles sont promulguées, existent de manière indépendante ou coexistent pour que, ensemble, elles deviennent une seule science dans l’EP. Appuyée sur la notion de distribution, j’ai identifié que les faits scientifiques, les routines des chercheurs/euses, les textes produits et les choix avec qui dialoguer établissent des indépendances académiques entre les sciences vécues par les groupes enquêtés. Par contre, en analysant les relations que ces groupes ont établies auprès d’un programme de Post- Graduation en EP, et les processus d’évaluation et le soutien régis par Capes et CNPQ, à travers la notion de coordination, j’ai constaté que, pour en devenir ‘une’, les multiples sciences de l’EP coexistent de manière hiérarchique et face à la calibration de leurs différences. Et à partir de la notion d’inclusion j’ai réfléchi sur les engagements des sciences étudiées en s’associant à différentes pratiques d’intervention de l’EP. Finalement, en comprenant que les sciences de l’EP sont multiples, le principal acheminement/provocation de cette thèse c’est qu’en réfléchissant/en rapportant/en questionnant à propos de la science de l’EP (ici, il faut remarquer le singulier) il devient indispensable de réfléchir/rapporter /questionner à propos des types de rapports qui ont été et sont aujourd’hui établis entre les sciences de l’EP (ici, il faut remarquer multiples), et quelles en sont leurs conséquences. / Desde os anos 2000 ocorreram ampliações e intensificações da comunidade de pesquisadores/as e dos aparatos científicos comprometidos com a Educação Física (EF). Esse processo aconteceu/acontece em meio a diversos tensionamentos que passaram a ser problematizados em estudos e debates. Instigada por esse processo e problematizações me aproximei dos Estudos Sociais da Ciência e Tecnologia, os quais provocaram a realização desta pesquisa, guiada pela seguinte questão: de que modo se faz ciência na EF brasileira? Para respondê-la realizei um estudo etnográfico em dois grupos de pesquisa da EF, com a duração aproximada de um ano e quatro meses em cada um deles, em que segui humanos e não-humanos, associações e controvérsias. Ao acompanhar/viver o dia a dia desses grupos cheguei à conclusão de que há múltiplas ciências da EF. Foi possível identificar que, na prática, a ciência da EF é aquela desenvolvida: por cientistas que possuem interesse pelas áreas exatas; com a dedicação exclusiva dos/das pesquisadores/as ao laboratório; com a utilização de aparatos tecnológicos; com o estabelecimento de relações com empresas privadas; com respostas às questões sobre comparações de forças, torques e exercícios; com metodologias científicas que ofereçam respostas à pergunta ‘como vamos medir(?)’; com a utilização de softwares que traduzem para o formato de números os resultados obtidos em diferentes testes e equipamentos; com análise estatística; e com inúmeros processos de ‘purificações’. Além dessa, a ciência da EF também é aquela desenvolvida: por cientistas que são professores de EF escolar; com base em questões sobre educação; com objetivos de ‘compreender’; com experiências adquiridas nas escolas; com metodologias qualitativas de pesquisa; com instrumentos metodológicos que permitem ‘dar voz’ ao professorado e aos estudantes investigados; com decisões sobre as ‘categorias de análises’; com resultados no formato de um texto descritivo e hermenêutico, com demarcações que ‘é um texto para o universo acadêmico’; com descrições ‘sobre quem’ e ‘onde’ os fatos científicos foram construídos; e posicionando-se em tensão com uma ciência historicamente hegemônica na EF. Mediante essas constatações passei a compreender/propor que se faz ciência na EF brasileira a partir de diferentes ontologias, as quais, conforme os espaços/tempos em que são promulgadas, existem de maneira independente ou coexistem para que, juntas, se tornem uma única ciência da EF. Apoiada na noção de distribuição identifiquei que os fatos científicos, as rotinas dos/as pesquisadores/as, os textos produzidos e as escolhas com quem dialogar estabelecem independências acadêmicas entre as ciências vivenciadas pelos grupos investigados. Já, ao analisar as relações que esses grupos estabelecem com um programa de pós-graduação em EF, e os processos de avaliação e fomento regidos pela Capes e CNPQ, por meio da noção de coordenação, constatei que, para se tornam ‘uma’, as múltiplas ciências da EF coexistem de maneira hierárquica e mediante a calibração de suas diferenças. E a partir da noção de inclusão refleti sobre os comprometimentos das ciências investigadas ao se associarem a diferentes práticas de intervenção da EF. Enfim, ao compreender que as ciências da EF são múltiplas, o principal encaminhamento/provocação desta tese é que ao se pensar/referir/indagar sobre a ciência da EF (nota-se, no singular) passa a ser indispensável pensar/referir/indagar sobre os tipos de relações que foram e estão sendo estabelecidas entre as ciências da EF (nota-se múltiplas), e quais são as suas consequências. / Since the beginning of the years 2000, there has been an enlarging and intensifying movement within the community of researchers and the scientific devices committed with Physical Education (PE). This process occurred and occurs among diverse tensions that have become the object of studies and debates. Incited by such process and discussions, I approached the Social Studies on Science and Technology which led me to carry out this research guided by the following question: how is science performed in Brazilian Physical Education? In order to get an answer to this question, I made an ethnographic study in two research groups of PE with an approximate duration of one year and four months on each, where I followed up humans and non-humans, associations and controversies. Upon following-up and experiencing the daily activities of these groups, I found out that there are multiple sciences on PE. It was possible to identify that, in practice, the PE science is developed by scientists interested on exact areas with exclusive dedication to laboratory research by utilizing technological devices and establishing relations with private companies; by trying to find answers to questions regarding the comparison of strengths, torques and exercises; by applying scientific methodologies that offer answers to the question ´how to measure…?`; by utilizing software that convert into digits the results obtained in different tests and equipment with statistical analysis and numberless ´purification` processes. Besides, the PE Science is also developed by scientists that are teachers of school PE based on issues about education with the objective of ´understanding` through experiences acquired in the schools; with qualitative research methodologies; with methodology instruments that allow ´giving voice` to inquired teachers and students; with decisions about ´analysis categories`; with results in the format of a descriptive and hermeneutical text; with demarcations identifying that ´it is a text for the academic universe`; with descriptions ´about who` and ´where` the scientific facts were constructed; and positioning itself n tension with a science that has been historically hegemonic in PE. These findings have led me to understand and to propose that one makes science in the Brazilian PE from different ontologies which, according to the spaces and times where and when they are enacted, exist in an independent way or which co-exist so that, together, they become a sole PE science. Supported by the distribution notion, I identified that the scientific facts, the routines of the researchers, the texts produced and the choices of the dialogue counterparts establish academic independences among the sciences experienced by the investigated groups. Meanwhile, the analyses of the relations that these groups establish with a post-graduation program in PE and of the processes to assess and to foster ruled by Capes and CNPQ, by means of the coordination notion, I have found out that in order to become ´one` the multiple PE sciences co-exist in hierarchic mode and through the calibration of their differences. From the notion of inclusion, I have thought over the commitments of the investigated sciences when they connect with different intervention practices of PE. In short, upon understanding that PE sciences are multiple, the main referral and provocation of this dissertation is that when one thinks, refers and enquires about PE science (that is, in the singular) it becomes essential to think, to refer and to enquire about the types of relations that have been or are being established among PE sciences (that is, multiple) and which are their consequences. / Desde los años 2000 han ocurrido ampliaciones e intensificaciones de la comunidad de investigadores/as y de los aparatos científicos comprometidos con la Educación Física (EF). Ese proceso sucedió/sucede en medio de diversas que comenzaron a ser problematizadas en estudios y debates. Instigada por ese proceso y por esas problematizaciones me aproximé a los Estudios Sociales de la Ciencia y Tecnología, los cuales motivaron la construcción de esta investigación, guiada por la siguiente interrogante: ¿de qué modo se hace ciencia en la EF brasilera? Con el fin de dar respuesta a dicha pregunta realicé un estudio etnográfico en dos grupos de investigación de la EF, con la duración aproximada de un año y cuatro meses en cada uno de ellos, en los cuales seguí a humanos y no-humanos, asociaciones y controversias. Al acompañar/vivir el día a día de esos grupos llegué a la conclusión de que existen múltiples ciencias de la EF. Fue posible identificar que, en la práctica, la ciencia de la EF es aquella desarrollada: por científicos que tienen interés en las ciencias duras; con dedicación exclusiva de los/as investigadores/as al laboratorio; con el uso de instrumentos tecnológicos; con el establecimiento de relaciones con empresas privadas; con respuestas a las cuestiones sobre comparaciones de fuerzas, torques y ejercicios; con metodologías científicas que ofrezcan respuestas a la pregunta ‘cómo vamos a medir(?)’; con la utilización de softwares que traducen al formato de números los resultados obtenidos en diferentes tests y equipamientos; con análisis estadístico; y con innumerables procesos de ‘purificación’. Además de esa, la ciencia de la EF es también aquella desarrollada: por científicos que son profesores de EF escolar; con base en cuestiones sobre educación; con objetivos de ‘comprender’; con experiencias adquiridas en las escuelas; con metodologías cualitativas de investigación; con instrumentos metodológicos que permiten ‘dar voz’ al profesorado y a los estudiantes investigados; con decisiones sobre las ‘categorías de análisis’; con resultados en el formato de un texto descriptivo y hermenéutico, con demarcaciones de que ‘es un texto para el universo académico’; con descripciones ‘sobre quien’ y ‘dónde’ los hechos científicos fueron construidos; y posicionándose en contraposición a una ciencia históricamente hegemónica en la EF. Mediante esas constataciones pasé a comprender/proponer que se hace/produce ciencia en la EF brasilera a partir de diferentes ontologías, las cuales, conforme los espacios/tiempos en que son promulgadas, existen de forma independiente o coexisten para que, juntas, se conviertan en una única ciencia de la EF. Apoyada en la noción de distribución identifiqué que los hechos científicos, las rutinas de los/as investigadores/as, los textos producidos y las elecciones de con quien dialogar establecen independencias académicas entre las ciencias vivenciadas por los grupos investigados. A su vez, al analizar las relaciones que esos grupos establecen con un programa de posgrado en EF, y los procesos de evaluación y fomento regidos por la Capes y el CNPQ, a través de la noción de coordinación, constaté que, para que se transformaran en ‘una’, las múltiples ciencias de la EF coexisten de manera jerárquica y a través de la asimilación de sus diferencias. Y a partir de la noción de inclusión reflexioné sobre los compromisos de las ciencias investigadas al asociarse con diferentes prácticas de intervención de la EF. Finalmente, al comprender que las ciencias de la EF son múltiples, el principal direccionamiento/ provocación de esta tesis es que al pensar/referir/indagar sobre la ciencia de la EF (nótese, en el singular) pasa a ser indispensable pensar/referir/indagar sobre los tipos de relaciones que fueron establecidas y se establecen entre las ciencias de la EF (nótese múltiples), y cuáles son sus consecuencias.

In Grades 3 to 5 at a suburban southeastern elementary school, the percentage of students with disabilities (SWDs) who do not meet state standards in science and social studies is greater than that of their nondisabled peers. To address this disparity, district administrators required that proficiency ratings increase for SWDs without providing general education (GE) teachers with training. A qualitative bounded case study was used to understand how GE teachers constructed their knowledge of and met SWDs instructional needs and to understand GE teachers' needs as they worked toward meeting the district goals. Piaget's constructivist learning theory served as the conceptual framework for this study. A purposeful sample of 6 GE teachers, 2 each from Grades 3-5 whose classrooms included SWDs, volunteered to participate in open-ended interviews. Qualitative data were analyzed using provisional coding and pattern coding. A primary finding was that the participants identified teacher collaboration and professional development necessary to accommodate SWDs in the GE setting. This finding led to a recommendation that school leaders provide ongoing professional development for GE teachers as well as ongoing opportunities for collaboration between GE and special education teachers. These endeavors may contribute to positive social change by providing GE teachers instructional strategies and accommodations for meeting the learning needs of SWDs to increase the number and percentage of SWDs who meet the state standards and district goals in science and social studies.

Biologiste reconnu, notamment, pour sa contribution à la fondation de la génétique des populations, J.B.S. Haldane (1892-1964) est également membre du Parti Communiste de Grande-Bretagne entre 1942 et 1950 et, à partir de 1937, il défend avec force l'opinion que le marxisme est utile au travail scientifique. Notre étude porte sur les idées marxistes de Haldane et sur la manière dont elles sont historiquement produites. Elle examine d'abord son parcours intellectuel et propose de comprendre son adoption du marxisme dans le cadre d'une dynamique de recherche d'unité entre des conceptions des sciences, de la philosophie et de la politique. L'étude porte ensuite sur la manière dont fonctionne ce qui est caractérisé comme une vision marxiste du monde, c'est-à-dire un mode de production et de circulation de concepts. En particulier, l'assertion que fait Haldane d'un usage du marxisme dans son travail scientifique est confrontée à certains de ses travaux en génétique des populations, ainsi qu'aux idées qu'il émet concernant l'eugénisme. Cette confrontation permet de confirmer et de généraliser, contre Sarkar (1992) et Shapiro (1993), le résultat proposé par Hammond (2004) d'une effectivité du marxisme de Haldane dans ses sciences, et de préciser la manière dont elle se réalise. Finalement, nous proposons une compréhension du marxisme de Haldane comme un cas particulier de processus historiques plus généraux. Nous examinons l'histoire des idées marxistes sur les sciences et le phénomène d'engagement politique de scientifiques britanniques à cette époque, et interrogeons par là les racines politiques et sociales du marxisme de Haldane. / A prominent biologist, remembered as a prominent contributor to the theoretical foundations of population genetics, JBS Haldane (1892-1964) was also a member of the Communist Party of Great Britain from 1942 to 1950. From 1937 on, he vigorously advocated the idea that Marxism was useful to scientific work.Our study focuses on Haldane's Marxist ideas and discusses the ways in which they were historically produced. We first consider the development of Haldane's intellectual positions and interpret his adoption of Marxism in the context of a dynamic search for unity between conceptions of science, philosophy and politics. Our study then focuses on the working of his Marxist thinking, which we characterize as a worldview, that is to say a mode of production and circulation of ideas. In particular, we examine the claim that Haldane made use of Marxism in his science using as evidence some of his work in population genetics and eugenics. This leads us to strengthen and generalize the case made by Hammond (2004) against Sarkar (1992) and Shapiro (1993) in favour of the impact of Haldane's Marxism on his science, and to a clarification concerning how this took place. Finally, we propose the interpretation of Haldane's Marxism as a special case of more general historical processes. We investigate the history of Marxist ideas of science and that of British scientists' political commitment at the time, and thus question the social and political roots of Haldane's Marxism.

<p>I have in this study examined, through qualitative interviews, how adults with foreign background that are pupils in adult education in Sweden, understand the concepts democracy and dictatorship. Their expressed understandings have been compared with their former life experiences as well as with the aim of the social studies to create a qualitative understanding of essential social concepts. My starting point is theories about the adult in leaning processes. It has been assumed that the adult interprets the world much through former life experiences. I have also relied on the idea that having a qualitative, more scientific, understanding of essential subjects is important for the adult as a member of society and participator in the on-going political debate. It should therefore be a central aim for educators in the social subjects within adult education to support a development of more qualified concept understandings among their pupils. In this study I have used the criterions of dr Roland Severin to define a qualified understanding of concepts. Such an understanding includes richness in meaning, structure, general description of cause and relation as well as the capacity to relate to different levels of abstraction. My conclusion is that the pupils in my study have very individual understandings of the concepts, especially the understandings of democracy. Their expressed understandings of dictatorship are in general less rich in meaning. I have found that their understandings are clearly influenced by former life experiences. In comparison to a qualitative understanding of concepts the pupils’ understandings both have strengths and weaknesses. The main strengths in their understandings lies in that they have structure and focus important meanings of the concepts. The pupils can also express their understandings in a concrete manner. The main weaknesses lay in that they lack sufficient meanings of the concepts to give them a exhaustive description. The pupils also tend to give more of concrete and less of general descriptions of the concepts. I have concluded that to support adult pupils in the development of more qualitative, and therefore more useful, social concepts educators should make use of the pupils’ collective experiences. By doing so more meanings of the essential concepts can be revealed and individual experiences can be connected to those of others to create generality in the pupils understandings.</p>

<p>During the Cold War, Norway was a member of NATO, Sweden was neutral but depended on Western support in the event of a crisis, while Finland's foreign policy priority was to win and retain the Soviet Union's confidence. The purpose of the thesis is to study whether the three small states' different foreign policy choices had consequences for the ways in which the Soviet Union and the USA were depicted in school textbooks for history, geography, and social sciences in the period 1930 to 2004. To this end, a theory derived from small states' strategies to maintain their independence was applied to textbook production. </p><p>The study demonstrates that there was a link between small state foreign policy and textbooks' accounts of the USA and Soviet Union. Swedish and Norwegian textbooks portray international conflicts from a legalistic perspective, taking the part of small states exposed to superpower aggression such as Vietnam and Afghanistan. In Finnish textbooks, however, an interest in defending small state's rights yielded to the need to demonstrate their goodwill towards the Soviet Union, which was described in far less critical terms than in Swedish and Norwegian textbooks. In time, in the name of neutrality, depictions of the USA also became increasingly uncritical.</p><p>All three Nordic states had government authorities charged with inspecting and approving school textbooks. Foreign policy's chief influence on textbooks was not effected by direct oversight, however; instead, it was established indirectly by means of the social climate, which determined what was considered politically correct in the three countries, and it was to this that the textbooks' authors adapted their work. </p><p>Textbooks are often said to be conservative and slow to change, but the thesis shows that in parts they were politically sensitive, rapidly adapting to changes in what society held to be politically correct.</p>

Sammanfattning Syfte och frågeställningar Syftet med studien har varit att ur ett genusperspektiv undersöka synen på bedömningsgrunder i betygssättningen inom ämnet idrott och hälsa i relation till svenska, samhällskunskap och matematik bland flickor och pojkar på Natur- och samhällsprogrammet(NS). Detta har undersökts utifrån följande frågeställningar: • På vilket sätt upplever gymnasieelever på NS-programmet att de bedöms i idrott och hälsa i relation till de ämnen som syftet anger? • Vilka förutsättningar upplever eleverna finns för att nå de olika betygsstegen i skolämnena idrott och hälsa, samhällskunskap, matematik och svenska? • Hur tror eleverna att en jämställd betygsbedömning ser ut i de utvalda skolämnena? Utifrån detta kommer vi att diskutera hur eleverna bryter eller återskapar genusordningen i sina resonemang kring betygsbedömningen. Metod Den metod som använts i studien är av kvalitativ karaktär som i det här fallet varit fyra fokusgruppsintervjuer i en årskurs tvåa på NS-programmet. Vi använde oss av ett strategiskt urval för den utvalda målgruppen. För att förstå och tolka elevernas resonemang i vårt resultat har vi använt oss av Yvonne Hirdmans och Raewyn Connells genusteorier. Resultat I relationen mellan idrott och hälsa, matematik, svenska och samhällskunskap finns, enligt vårt resultat, en indikation på att kunskaperna laddas och värderas på olika sätt och får därmed olika dignitet. Idrott och hälsa som det lägsta i hierarkin och matematik som det högsta, däremellan befinner sig samhällskunskap och svenska. En del av bedömningen, enligt eleverna, är intresse och deras beteende och inställning under lektionerna. Beteenden, egenskaper och intressen genusifieras av eleverna. Intresset för idrott och hälsa tillskrivs pojkarna vilket i sin tur leder till att båda könen tillåter pojkarna att dominera idrottsundervisningen. Slutsats Eleverna i vår studie förhandlar sällan, eller aldrig om sina genusidentiter framförallt inte inom intresseområden. Detta menar vi begränsar både flickorna och pojkarna. Alla aktörer i skolan medverkar till att skapa och upprätthålla genussystemet, att diskutera betyg och bedömning är ett sätt att konkretisera detta. Då idrott och hälsa, enligt eleverna, saknar tydliga mål genererar det också att ett högt betyg i idrott och hälsa inte får samma legitimitet som de övriga ämnena vi undersökt. Resonemanget att det är lätt att uppnå ett betyg i idrott och hälsa i jämförelse med matematik, svenska och samhällskunskap medför en förstärkning av detta. Däremot verkar det, enligt vårt resultat och tidigare forskning, som att höga betyg i idrott och hälsa verkar statushöjande för framförallt pojkar. Nyckelord Genus, idrott och hälsa, samhällskunskap, svenska, matematik, genusidentitet, genuskontrakt, ideal, maskulinitet, feminitet, genusregim, betyg, bedömning. / Abstract Aim The aim of this study has been to examine the perception of assessment criteria in the grading of Physical education in relation to Swedish, Social studies and Mathematics among girls and boys in Nature and Society programme (NS) from a gender perspective. This has been examined through using the following questions: • How do high school students at the NS programme experience the assessment in Physical education in relation to other subjects in school? • Which specific terms do the students experience they have to achieve in the various grades in Physical education, Social studies, Mathematics and Swedish? • How do the students perceive that an equal assessment is made in the chosen subjects? From this, we will interpret how students challenge or reproduce the gender order in their discussion of assessment. Method This study has had an qualitative approach and four focus group interviews have been carriedout with second year students at the NS programme. We used a strategic selection for the selected target group. To understand and interpret students' reasoning in our results, we have used the gender theory of Yvonne Hirdman and Raewyn Connell. Results The main result obtained in our study indicates that the students value the relations betweenthe chosen subjects differentially. Physical education as the lowest in the hierarchy and Mathematics as the highest. In between are Social studies, and Swedish. With this setting it is also difficult for the students to define what they should learn in Physical education. This is not seen as a problem in Mathematics. Part of the assessment, according to students, is based on their level of interest and behavior. Behaviors, characteristics and interests of the students are gendered which also becomes a part of the assessment. Interest in Physical education is attributed to the boys, which leads to both sexes allowing them to dominate Physical education. Conclusion The students in this study rarely negotiate their gender identities, especially in areas of interest. This, according to us, limits both girls and boys. All actors at the school in this study helps to create and maintain the gender system. Discussing the grading and assessment are ways of concretizing it. According to the students is there a lack of aim in Physical educationin contrast to Social studies, Mathematics and Swedish. The consequence of these arguments is according to us that the legitimacy of Physical education is minor then the other subjects in our study. However due to our result and previous science do high grades in Physical education bring higher status above all to the boys. Keywords Gender, Physical education, Social studies, Swedish, Mathematics, gender identity, gender contract, ideals, masculinity, femininity, gender regime, grading. assessment.