Background: The concept of alexithymia is characterized by difficulties identifying and describing one’s emotions. Alexithymic individuals are impaired in the recognition of others’ emotional facial expressions. Alexithymia is quite common in patients suffering from major depressive disorder. The face-in-the-crowd task is a visual search paradigm that assesses processing of multiple facial emotions. In the present eye-tracking study, the relationship between alexithymia and visual processing of facial emotions was examined in clinical depression. Materials and Methods: Gaze behavior and manual response times of 20 alexithymic and 19 non-alexithymic depressed patients were compared in a face-in-the-crowd task. Alexithymia was empirically measured via the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia-Scale. Angry, happy, and neutral facial expressions of different individuals were shown as target and distractor stimuli. Our analyses of gaze behavior focused on latency to the target face, number of distractor faces fixated before fixating the target, number of target fixations, and number of distractor faces fixated after fixating the target. Results: Alexithymic patients exhibited in general slower decision latencies compared to non-alexithymic patients in the face-in-the-crowd task. Patient groups did not differ in latency to target, number of target fixations, and number of distractors fixated prior to target fixation. However, after having looked at the target, alexithymic patients fixated more distractors than non-alexithymic patients, regardless of expression condition. Discussion: According to our results, alexithymia goes along with impairments in visual processing of multiple facial emotions in clinical depression. Alexithymia appears to be associated with delayed manual reaction times and prolonged scanning after the first target fixation in depression, but it might have no impact on the early search phase. The observed deficits could indicate difficulties in target identification and/or decision-making when processing multiple emotional facial expressions. Impairments of alexithymic depressed patients in processing emotions in crowds of faces seem not limited to a specific affective valence. In group situations, alexithymic depressed patients might be slowed in processing interindividual differences in emotional expressions compared with non-alexithymic depressed patients. This could represent a disadvantage in understanding non-verbal communication in groups.

Le premier objectif de cette étude était d’évaluer la relation entre l’alexithymie et différents troubles du sommeil chez des patients diagnostiqués (N= 580) selon la polysomnographie et la classification de l’American Academy of Sleep Medicine (AASM) et chez des sujets contrôle (N= 145) en utilisant l’Échelle d’Alexithymie de Toronto à 20 items (TAS-20). Le deuxième objectif était d’estimer le lien entre l’alexithymie et des caractéristiques de rêves suivant un Questionnaire sur les Rêves de 14 items. Les résultats confirment un lien entre l’alexithymie et les troubles du sommeil. Sa prévalence était supérieure dans le groupe clinique comparativement au groupe contrôle, et était différente selon les troubles. Les hommes cotaient plus haut que les femmes à l’Échelle d’Alexithymie de Toronto à 20 items (TAS-20) et sur ses sous-échelles DDF (difficulty describing feeling) et EOT (externally oriented thinking). L’EOT pourrait être impliquée dans les troubles de sommeil en étant l’unique sous-échelle, où un effet principal des diagnostics était significatif dans le groupe clinique. Pour les rêves, le score du TAS-20 corrélait positivement avec le facteur « détresse des cauchemars »; et négativement avec « rappel de rêves » et « signification des rêves ». Les sous-échelles du TAS-20 avaient des corrélations différentes: positive entre DIF et « détresse des cauchemars », négative entre DDF et « rappel de rêves » et EOT avec « signification des rêves ». À part quelques exceptions, ces modèles sont obtenus pour les groupes cliniques et non-cliniques, et pour les hommes et les femmes dans ces deux groupes. Ces résultats suggèrent un modèle consistant, et reproductible, de relations entre l’alexithymie et les composantes des rêves. / Using a large clinical group of patients suffering from sleep disorders (N= 580) and non-clinical comparison subjects (N= 145), the first aim of this study was to evaluate the relationship between alexithymia and several different sleep disorders diagnosed from polysomnography following the American Academy of Sleep Medicine classification system and using a Canadian French translation of the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia scale (TAS-20). The second objective was to evaluate the link between alexithymia and dream characteristics using a 14-item Dreaming Questionnaire. Results confirm a relationship between alexithymia and sleep disorders. Its prevalence was higher in the clinical than the non-clinical group and differed according to sleep disorder diagnoses. Men scored higher than women on the TAS-20 total score and on the DDF (difficulty describing feeling) and EOT (externally oriented thinking) subscales. EOT could be implicated in sleep disorders pathology as it was the only subscale for which the sleep diagnosis effect was significant in the clinical group. Concerning the second objective, TAS-20 total score correlated positively with nightmare distress and negatively with dream recall; and correlated negatively with dream meaning. TAS-20 subscales were differentially correlated with the 3 dream factors of the Dreaming Questionnaire: DIF with increased nightmare distress, DDF with decreased dream recall and EOT with decreased dream meaning. With some exceptions, these patterns were obtained for clinical and non-clinical groups and for men and women. These results suggest a consistent and replicable pattern of relationships between alexithymia and dreaming components.

The diploma thesis deals with the emotional experience of patients with chronic renal failure. It aims to explore positive and negative emotional experiences, the presence of depressive and anxiety symptoms, the degree of anger and alexithymia in patients with chronic renal failure undergoing hemodialysis. The theoretical part summarizes previously published theoretical knowledge in this area and the empirical part describes the statistical measurement and comparison of selected variables of emotional experience in the research sample. The theoretical part is divided into 4 chapters, the first of them deals with the medical aspects of chronic renal failure and its treatment. The second chapter deals with the coping with illness, defines psychological aspects of chronic disease and describes the patient's subjective perception of the disease and attitudes towards the disease. The third chapter summarizes the definitions of emotions and emotional experience and defines the most respected theories of emotion. The fourth chapter describes the emotional experiences of illness, factors affecting the emotional experience of illness and deals with depression, anxiety, anger and alexithymia, at the end focuses on current research in this area. The empirical part is devoted to the empirical investigation of...

Les conduites à risques des jeunes sont au centre des politiques de santé publique actuelles. Afin de tenter de prévenir leur occurrence, il semble important d’en comprendre les origines. Dans cette logique, ce travail doctoral s’intéresse aux facteurs psychologiques de vulnérabilité à la consommation d’alcool et aux troubles alimentaires subcliniques chez les jeunes. Plus spécifiquement, il appréhende les influences de l’attachement parental, la personnalité et l’alexithymie sur ces conduites au travers de modèles complexes. Trois études ont été mises en place. La première a permis d’explorer le rôle de l’attachement parental et du concept de soi dans la consommation d’alcool des adolescents (N = 245). La seconde a souligné les effets directs et indirects de l’attachement parental, la personnalité et l’alexithymie sur la consommation d’alcool et les troubles alimentaires subcliniques au sein d’une population d’étudiants sportifs (N = 434). La troisième a mis en évidence l’existence de relations directes et indirectes entre l’attachement parental, les facettes de la personnalité, l’alexithymie et les troubles alimentaires subcliniques des athlètes de haut niveau (N = 275). Les résultats révèlent que les comportements risqués des jeunes sont liés à un attachement parental insécurisé et à des difficultés dans l’identification et la description de leurs émotions. La consommation d’alcool est associée à un faible caractère consciencieux alors que les troubles alimentaires subcliniques sont liés à un névrosisme élevé. Plus précisément, l’attachement parental insécurisé favorise la consommation d’alcool au travers de son influence sur le caractère consciencieux et la régulation des affects. Ce type d’attachement contribue également à l’occurrence des troubles alimentaires des sportifs en induisant un névrosisme élevé, et plus particulièrement une forte impulsivité chez les athlètes de haut niveau. / Risk-taking behaviours of young people are issues that need to be addressed. Understanding their origins could prevent them from wide spreading. Consequently, this thesis focused on the psychological factors of vulnerability to alcohol use and subclinical eating disorders amongst young people. More specifically, we examined the influences of parental attachment, personality characteristics and alexithymia on these risk-taking behaviours through different models. Three studies have been carried out. The first one aimed to assess the role of the parental attachment and self-concept in alcohol use of adolescents (N = 245). The second one identified direct and indirect effects of parental attachment, personality characteristics and alexithymia on alcohol use and subclinical eating disorders amongst a sample of student athletes (N = 434). The third study emphasized the direct and indirect relationships between parental attachment, personality facets, alexithymia and subclinical eating disorders amongst a sample of elite athletes (N = 275). The findings provided evidence that risk-taking behaviours of young people were linked with an insecure parental attachment and difficulties in identifying and describing their feelings. Alcohol use was related to low conscientiousness whereas subclinical eating disorders were related to high neuroticism. Insecure parental attachment influenced alcohol use through its influence on conscientiousness and difficulties in identifying one’s feelings. Finally insecure attachment influenced subclinical eating disorders through high neuroticism, and specifically high impulsivity amongst elite athletes.Key words: alcohol use, subclinical eating disorders, parental attachment, alexithymia, personality factors, adolescents, student athletes, elite athletes.

Introduction : La prise en charge psychologique de patients pendant le processus de greffe demoelle osseuse pour un cancer hématologique fait partie intégrante du parcoursthérapeutique. Cette étude a deux objectifs : (1) tester l’impact d’une prise en charge par larelaxation psychothérapique, Méthode Sapir à court et à moyen terme, auprès de cettepopulation (2) savoir si des variables dispositionnelles (alexithymie, optimisme) et desvariables transactionnelles (stratégies de coping, soutien social perçu) peuvent influencer cetimpact.Méthode : 39 patients ont été inclus. Le groupé expérimental (N=20) a bénéficié d’une priseen charge par la relaxation psychothérapique tandis que le groupe contrôle (N = 19) a eu unsuivi psychologique traditionnel. Les patients ont été évalués 4 jours avant la greffe (T1),puis 45 jours (T2) et 100 jours (T3) après la greffe. Les variables dispositionnelles(alexithymie, optimisme), les variables transactionnelles (coping, soutien social perçu) et lesissues à prédire (état émotionnel, image du corps et qualité de vie) ont été mesurées.Résultats : A T3, les patients du groupe expérimental sont significativement moins anxieux(p<0,001), éprouvent une meilleure satisfaction corporelle (p<0,01) et ont une meilleureQDV physique (p≤0,001) qu’à T1. Chez les patients du groupe contrôle aucun changementsignificatif n’est observé avec le temps. Par ailleurs, aucune différence significative entre lesdeux groupes n’a été trouvée aux trois temps de l’étude. A T3, les patients alexithymiques dugroupe expérimental sont significativement moins dépressifs (p<0,05), ont une meilleureQDV cognitive (p<0,01) et émotionnelle (p<0,01) qu’à T1.A T3, les patients les plusoptimistes du groupe expérimental rapportent une meilleure QDV physique (p<0,05) etémotionnelle (p<0,05) qu’à T1.Chez les patients du groupe contrôle aucune modération del’alexithymie et de l’optimisme sur l’ajustement au cancer n’est observée. Enfin, l’effet demédiation du coping et du soutien social perçu n’a pas été démontré dans cette étude.Conclusion : La prise en charge par la relaxation psychothérapique a une place auprès decette population. L’illustration de deux cas cliniques vient confirmer ces propos. Cependant,au regard du faible nombre de sujets, il convient de contre-valider ces résultats auprès d’unepopulation plus large. / Introduction: The psychological care of patients during the process of bone marrowtransplantation for a hematological cancer is part of the therapeutic process. This study hastwo objectives: (1) to test at a short and medium term the impact of psychotherapeuticrelaxation, Sapir’s method, on the psychological adjustment of patients with hematologiccancer hospitalized at a sterile hospital’s room for bone marrow transplantation; (2) toexamine weather dispositional variables (alexithymia, optimism) and transactional variables(coping, perceived social support) can influence this impact.Method: 39 patients were included. The experimental group (N=20) received a care ofpsychotherapeutic relaxation while the control group received a traditional psychologicalfollow-up. Patients were evaluated 4 days before transplantation (T1), 45 days aftertransplantation (T2) and 100 days post-transplantation (T3), respectively. Personalityvariables (alexithymia, optimism), adjustment of cancer variables (emotional state, bodyimage, quality of life) and transactional variables (coping, perceived social support) weremeasured.Results: The patients in the experimental group at T3 are significantly less anxious(p<0.001), experienced a better body satisfaction (p<0.01) and a better physical quality oflife (p≤0.001) than at T1. In patients of the group control, no significant positive or negativemovements are observed by the time on studied variables. Moreover, no significantdifferences are found between two groups on three times of study. The alexithymic patientsof the experimental group are significantly less depressed at T3 (p<0.01) and experienced abetter cognitive (0.01) and emotional (p<0.01) quality of life. The most optimistic patients ofthe experimental group have a better physical (p<0.05) and emotional (p<0.05) quality oflife. In patients of the control group, no moderation of alexithymia and optimism is observedon cancer adjustment. Finally, the mediating effect of coping and perceived social support isnot demonstrated in this study.Conclusion: The psychotherapeutic relaxation has an important place to this population. Thisis confirmed by the illustration of two cases. Finally, due to the small number of subjectsincluded, these results require validation on a larger population.

Abstract Somatization is a widespread phenomenon causing subjective suffering and disability. The aim of the study was to assess somatization disorder (SD) and somatization symptoms among young adult population and their associations with sociodemographic factors, alexithymia and temperament as well as psychiatric comorbidity. Various suggestions have been presented to operationalize somatization but none of them has been shown to be superior to others. In this study two definitions were used: SD by DSM-III-R classification diagnostic criteria and "somatization" meaning four or more symptoms of the 35 symptoms of DSM-III-R SD criteria. The study population was a subsample of the Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 (NFBC 1966), consisting of cohort members living in Oulu (N = 1,609) on January 1st 1997. The NFBC 1966 is a general population birth cohort of 12,058 live-born children covering 96.3% of all deliveries in the catchment area. The best-estimated procedure was used for assessment of psychiatric morbidity including SD and somatization. Data were collected from the Finnish Hospital Discharge Register and from all available outpatient and inpatient records. Data on education were gathered from Statistics Finland. Other sociodemographic variables, alexithymia and temperament scores were drawn from questionnaires of the field study conducted in 1997 and from earlier follow-up studies. The prevalence of SD was 1.1% (N = 18). Of the subjects 6.1% (N = 97) had somatization. The female-to-male ratio was 5:1 and 6:1, respectively. SD was not recognized by any of the treating physicians, at least not documented in case notes. The observed occurrences of SD and somatization were at a level comparable with earlier international population studies. Somatization did not associate with depression or alexithymia, and neither could a characteristic temperament profile be recognized. Somatization was associated with psychological distress. These results indicate a need for training physicians to recognize SD and somatization and its comorbidity. This will have implications both for psychiatry and other medical specialties regarding collaboration and underlines the importance of liaison-psychiatry at general hospitals. The results suggest a need for more studies about the etiology and development of SD and somatization. / Tiivistelmä Somatisaatio on yleinen ilmiö, josta aiheutuu subjektiivista kärsimystä ja toimintakyvyn laskua. Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoitus oli arvioida somatisaatiohäiriön ja somatisaatio-oireilun yleisyyttä nuorilla aikuisilla sekä näiden ilmiöiden yhteyttä sosiodemografisiin tekijöihin, aleksitymiaan, temperamenttiin ja psykiatriseen sairastavuuteen. Somatisaation käsitteellistämiseksi on esitetty useita vaihtoehtoja mutta mikään niistä ei ole osoittautunut muita paremmaksi. Tässä tutkimuksessa käytetiin kahta määritelmää: DSM-III-R -diagnoosiluokituksen mukaista somatisaatiohäiriön diagnoosia tai somatisaatio-oireilua, jossa esiintyy neljä tai useampia DSM-III-R:n 35 somatisaatiohäiriön oireesta. Tutkimusaineiston muodostivat Pohjois-Suomen vuoden 1966 syntymäkohortin ne jäsenet, jotka asuivat Oulussa 1. tammikuuta 1997 (N =  1,609). Alkuperäinen kohortti koostuu 12,058 elävänä syntyneestä tutkittavasta, mikä kattaa 96.3 % kaikista synnytyksistä Pohjois-Suomessa. Niin kutsutun best-estimated -menettelyn avulla arvioitiin tutkittavien psykiatrista sairastavuutta mukaan lukien somatisaatiohäiriö ja -oireilu. Tietoa kerättiin sairaaloiden poistoilmoitusrekisteristä. Avohoidon sairauskertomustieto koottiin kattavasti. Koulutusasteesta saatiin tieto Tilastokeskukselta. Muita sosiodemografisia tekijöitä, aleksitymiaa ja temperamenttia arvioitiin vuoden 1997 kenttätutkimuksen ja aiempien seurantatutkimusten tietojen avulla. Somatisaatiohäiriön esiintyvyys oli 1.1 % (N =  18). Somatisaatio-oireita todettiin 6.1 % (N =  97) tutkittavista. Naisten osuus oli somatisaatiohäiriössä 5:1 ja somatisaatio-oireilussa 6:1. Osoittautui, että lääkärit eivät tunnistaneet somatisaatiohäiriötä, ainakaan sitä ei oltu kirjattu sairauskertomuksiin. Havaitut somatisaatiohäiriön ja -oireilun esiintyvyydet ovat sopusoinnussa aiempien kansainvälisten tutkimusten kanssa. Somatisaatio-oireilu ei liittynyt masennukseen tai aleksitymiaan eikä somatisaatio-oireilusta kärsiville tutkittavilla todettu tyypillistä temperamenttiprofiilia. Somatisaatio liittyi psyykkiseen stressiin. Johtopäätöksenä voidaan todeta, että lääkäreille tulisi tarjota koulutusta somatisaatiohäiriön ja -oireilun tunnistamisessa. On tärkeää tunnistaa somatisaatio ja siihen liittyvä oheissairastavuus. Havainnot korostavat yleissairaaloiden yhteistyöpsykiatrian ja muiden erikoisalojen yhteistyön merkitystä somatisaatiosta kärsivien potilaiden tutkimuksessa ja hoidossa. Somatisaatiohäiriön ja -oireilun etiologian ja kehittymisen selvittämiseksi tarvitaan uusia tutkimuksia.

Objective: Previous studies have established an association between number of traumatic experiences and alexithymia. The present study examines this relationship in a large-scale representative sample of the German general population (N=2,507) and explores the potential mediating effects of posttraumatic symptomatology, particularly avoidance/numbing. Methods: Alexithymia was assessed with the German version of the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). Posttraumatic symptomatology was operationalized by the symptom score of the modified German version of the Posttraumatic Symptom Scale, and traumatic experiences were assessed with the trauma list of the Munich Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Two mediation analyses were conducted. Results: Of the total sample, 24.2% (n=606) reported at least one traumatic experience, 10.6% (n=258) were classified as alexithymic, and 2.4% (n=59) fulfilled the criteria of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Participants who had survived five or more traumatic experiences had significantly higher alexithymia sum scores. The PTSD symptom cluster avoidance/numbing mediated the association between the number of traumatic experiences and alexithymia. Conclusions: Our findings illustrate an association between number of traumatic experiences and alexithymia and the influence of emotional avoidance and numbing within this relationship. The significant relationship between alexithymia and number of traumatic experiences in a general population sample further supports the concept of multiple and complex traumatization as associated with alexithymia. The results suggest the importance of further investigations determining the causal impact of alexithymia both as a potential premorbid trait and as consequence of traumatization. Lastly, future investigations are needed to clarify alexithymia as a distinct trauma-relevant characteristic for better diagnostics and specialized trauma-integrative therapy.

La forte prévalence des conduites alimentaires à risque (CAAR), par exemple la restriction alimentaire, les vomissements auto-induits ainsi que les crises d’hyperphagie boulimique de sévérité non diagnostique, et les conséquences importantes qu’elles peuvent entraîner ont amené les chercheurs à vouloir mieux comprendre les facteurs impliqués dans leur développement. Cette thèse s’intéresse à un phénomène à la base d’un nombre grandissant de théories sur les CAAR : la régulation émotionnelle. Le premier article se concentre sur le concept d’alexithymie, un trait de personnalité jouant un rôle clé dans la régulation émotionnelle ainsi que le développement, le maintien et la rechute des CAAR. Bien que l’association entre l’alexithymie et les CAAR soit bien établie, les études n’offrent pas d’explication quant aux facteurs qui contribuent à l’apparition de traits de personnalité alexithymiques qui, à leur tour, placent l’individu à risque de développer des CAAR. En explorant la documentation scientifique disponible, il est possible de constater que plusieurs psychanalystes ont autrefois proposé des concepts pour expliquer le développement de l’alexithymie (p. ex. refoulement primaire, expérience non formulée, déni), mais ces théories ont rarement fait l’objet d’études empiriques. L’objectif du premier article est donc de tester ces modèles en utilisant deux stratégies de régulation émotionnelle provenant du modèle de James J. Gross, soit la suppression expressive et la réévaluation cognitive. Un échantillon de 292 femmes provenant majoritairement d’une population non clinique universitaire a complété le Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20 items, le Emotion Regulation Questionnaire et le Eating Disorder Inventory-2. Les résultats des médiations proposent que la suppression expressive prédit positivement les traits de personnalité alexithymiques, ce qui prédit positivement les CAAR. Inversement, la réévaluation cognitive prédit négativement les traits de personnalité alexithymiques, ce qui prédit ensuite négativement les CAAR. Ces résultats suggèrent qu’il pourrait être pertinent d’intervenir sur certains mécanismes potentiellement précurseurs de l’alexithymie afin de favoriser la diminution d’agirs comportementaux comme les CAAR. Les résultats de cette première étude ouvrent la réflexion sur des pistes d’intervention concrètes pouvant être mises en application auprès des personnes souffrant de CAAR. En effet, les résultats de cette thèse suggèrent qu’il pourrait être important d’aider l’individu à diminuer l’évitement/la suppression de ses émotions pour plutôt encourager leur exploration. Il est possible d’émettre l’hypothèse que ce type d’intervention permettrait, avec le temps, la diminution des traits alexithymiques, ceci en favorisant la formation de représentations mentales des émotions. Conséquemment, la diminution de décharges somatiques comme les CAAR pourrait s’en suivre. L’implication des résultats pour les thérapies de différentes approches (p.ex. psychodynamique, cognitivo-comportementale et basée sur la mentalisation) est ensuite discutée. Afin de préciser l’étude de la régulation émotionnelle dans les CAAR, le second article a pour but d’identifier les émotions jouant un rôle particulier au sein de ces comportements. Pour ce faire, cet article, qui comprend deux études, s’intéresse aux liens entre les catégories émotionnelles distinctes du modèle des émotions différentielles d’Izard (p. ex. tristesse, joie) et les CAAR. La première étude a pour objectif d’explorer l’association entre les émotions-traits et les conduites alimentaires de recherche de minceur et boulimiques. Un total de 244 femmes provenant en majorité d’une population non clinique universitaire a complété le Eating Disorder Inventory-2 et le Differential Emotion Scale-trait version. Les analyses de régression démontrent que le modèle d’Izard prédit significativement les conduites de recherche de minceur et boulimiques. La contribution unique de chaque émotion-trait est ensuite étudiée. Les résultats indiquent que la honte est la seule émotion qui reste un prédicteur significatif des conduites de recherche de minceur et que seuls la culpabilité, le mépris et l’hostilité dirigée contre soi demeurent des prédicteurs significatifs des comportements boulimiques. Pour sa part, la seconde étude a pour but d’explorer l’association entre les émotions-états et les CAAR. Un total de 155 participantes provenant de l’échantillon de la première étude a complété un questionnaire leur demandant de rapporter par écrit un comportement de restriction ou de boulimie ayant eu lieu dans le passé. Elles ont ensuite complété le Differential Emotion Scale-state version. Les analyses descriptives démontrent que nonobstant la nature du comportement, la tristesse est l’émotion vécue la plus intensément par les participantes avant l’épisode rapporté. De plus, une comparaison de groupes a révélé que les personnes ayant décrit un épisode de boulimie ressentent significativement moins de joie et d’intérêt avant l’épisode que celles ayant rapporté un comportement restrictif. En résumé, les résultats suggèrent tout d’abord que les émotions négatives semblent jouer un rôle important au sein des CAAR. En ce sens, cet article appuie les recommandations de certains chercheurs à l’effet que l’intervention auprès des personnes ayant des CAAR nécessite d’inclure des volets dédiés à la régulation des émotions. Toutefois, ces études vont encore plus loin en proposant qu’il pourrait être pertinent de développer des interventions ciblées et concrètes permettant la gestion d’émotions ou de patrons d’émotions qui jouent un rôle prédominant auprès des différents CAAR. / The high prevalence of disordered eating (DE), for example food restriction, selfinduced vomiting or binge eating that are not of diagnostic severity, and the important consequences that they can entail have led researchers to further investigate the premorbid factors involved in them. The present thesis is interested in a phenomenon that is the basis of a growing body of theories on DE: emotion regulation. The first paper focuses on the concept of alexithymia, a personality trait that plays a key role in emotion regulation as well as in the development, maintenance, and relapse of DE symptoms. Although the association between alexithymia and DE is well established, current studies offer no explanation as to what factors contribute to the development of alexithymic personality traits, which in turn puts the individual at risk for DE. Several psychoanalysts have offered theoretical concepts to explain the development of alexithymia (e.g. primary repression, unformulated experience, denial), but these have not been submitted to empirical studies. The aim of the first study is to test these theories using two empirically established emotion regulation strategies taken from James J. Gross's model, namely expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal. A sample of 292 women, the majority being undergraduated students, completed the Toronto Alexithymia Scale-20 items, the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, and the Eating Disorder Inventory-2. The results of the mediation analyzes suggest that expressive suppression significantly and positively predicts alexithymic personality traits, which positively predicts DE. Inversely, cognitive reappraisal negatively predicts alexithymic personality traits, which then negatively predicts DE. These results suggest that it could be important to intervene on certain mechanisms that are potential precursors of alexithymia in order to promote the reduction of DE. More specifically, the results of this first study open up reflection on concrete lines of intervention that could be applied to vii people suffering from DE. Indeed, the results propose that it could be beneficial to encourage these individuals to explore their emotions rather then to avoid / suppress them. It can be hypothesised that these types of intervention will allow, over time, the reduction of alexithymic traits by promoting the formation of mental representations of emotions. Consequently, it is possible that the decrease in somatic discharges such as DE will follow. The implication of the results for different therapeutic approaches (psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral and mentalization-based) is then discussed. In order to further clarify the role of emotional regulation in DE, the second paper aims to identify emotions that play a key role in the disorder. This article, divided into two studies, focuses on the association between distinct emotional categories from Izard's differential emotions theory (e.g. sadness, joy) and pathological eating. The first study explores the relationship between trait-emotions and DE. A total of 244 women, the greater part being undergraduated students, completed the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 and the Differential Emotion Scale-trait version. Regression analyzes show that Izard's model significantly predicts both drive for thinness and bulimic behaviors. The unique contribution of each trait-emotion is then explored. The results indicate that shame is the only emotion that remains a significant predictor of drive for thinness and that only guilt, contempt and self-directed hostility remain significant predictors of bulimic behavior. As for the second study, a total of 155 participants coming from the first study sample completed a questionnaire asking them to report in writing an episode of restriction or bulimia that occurred in the recent past. They then completed the Differential Emotion Scale-state version. Descriptive analyzes reveal that regardless of the kind of DE, sadness is the emotion experienced most intensely by the participants before the reported episode. Furthermore, group comparisons indicate that people who report a bulimic episode felt viii significantly less joy and interest before the event than those who recalled a restrictive behavior. In summary, the results first suggest that people with DE experience more negative emotions on a daily basis. Thereby, this article supports the recommendations of certain researchers suggesting that interventions with people exhibiting DE should include components dedicated to the regulation of emotions. Moreover, these studies go even further by suggesting that it could be relevant to develop targets and concrete interventions allowing the regulation of specific emotions or patterns of emotions, which could play a predominant role with the various DE.

Объектом исследования является эмпатические способности и рефлексивность. Предметом исследования является различия в уровне выраженности эмпатических способностей и рефлексивности между игроками, предпочитающими одиночные и командные компьютерные игры. Магистерская диссертация состоит из введения, двух глав, заключения, списка литературы (77 источников) и приложений, включающих в себя изображения теоретических исследований, таблицы описательных статистик, подсчёта нормальности распределения шкал и бланки применявшихся методик. Объем магистерской диссертации составил 119 страниц, на которых размещены 39 рисунков и 35 таблиц. Во введении раскрывается актуальность проблемы исследования, разработанность проблематики, ставятся цель и задачи исследования, определяются объект и предмет исследования, формулируется основная гипотеза, указываются методы и эмпирическая база, а также научная новизна, теоретическая и практическая значимость работы. Первая глава включает в себя исследование российской и зарубежной литературы и ресурсов на тему эмпатических способностей, рефлексивности, цифровой среды и компьютерных игр. Представлены имеющиеся на данный момент в России и за рубежом исследования психологических особенностей геймеров. Выводы по первой главе представляют собой итоги по изучению теоретического материала. Вторая глава посвящена эмпирической части исследования. В ней представлено описание организации и методов проведенного исследования и результатов, полученных по всем использованным методикам: тест рефлексивности А.В. Карпова, многофакторный опросник эмпатии М. Дэвиса, торонтская алекситимическая шкала, тест межличностных отношений Лири. Выводы по главе 2 включают в себя основные результаты эмпирического исследования. В заключении в обобщенном виде изложены результаты теоретической и эмпирической частей работы, а также выводы по выдвинутой гипотезе, обоснована практическая значимость исследования и описаны возможные перспективы дальнейшей разработки данной проблематики. / The object matter of the study is empathic abilities and reflexivity. The subject of the study is the differences in the level of expressiveness of empathic abilities and reflexivity between players who prefer single and team computer games. The master's thesis consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion, a list of literature (77 sources) and an appendix, which includes images of theoretical studies, tables of descriptive statistics, calculation of the normality of the distribution of scales and forms of the methods used. The volume of the master's thesis was 119 pages, which contain 39 figures and 35 tables. The introduction reveals the relevance of the research problem, the development of the problematics, sets the goal and objectives of the research, defines the object and subject of research, formulates the main hypothesis, indicates the methods and empirical base, as well as scientific novelty, theoretical and practical significance of the work. The first chapter includes a study of Russian and foreign literature and resources on empathic abilities, reflexivity, the digital environment and computer games. Presented are currently available in Russia and abroad studies of the psychological characteristics of gamers. The conclusions on the first chapter are the results of the study of theoretical material. The second chapter is devoted to the empirical part of the study. It presents a description of the organization and methods of the study and the results obtained by all the methods used: the reflexivity test of A.V. Karpova, M. Davis' multifactorial empathy questionnaire, Toronto alexithymic scale, Leary's test of interpersonal relationships. Conclusions on the second chapter include the main findings of the empirical study. In the conclusion, the results of the theoretical and empirical parts of the work are summarized, as well as conclusions on the hypothesis put forward, the practical significance of the study is substantiated, and possible prospects for further development of this issue are described.

[pt] Crenças disfuncionais sobre emoções negativas estão associadas à presença de sintomas como ansiedade, depressão, fadiga, medo de avaliação negativa, menor busca por apoio social e supressão emocional. A supressão é uma estratégia de regulação das emoções contraproducente, relacionada com dificuldades como menores níveis de entendimento emocional e aumento dos estados afetivos indesejados. Estas crenças estão relacionadas, ainda, com diferentes quadros clínicos, e podem se originar a partir de fatores ambientais, que exercem um papel central no aparecimento de sintomas referentes à presença das crenças. Elas atuam, também, como fator de risco e vulnerabilidade para certos grupos, já que podem levar a maiores taxas desses sintomas, com os quais parece haver uma relação bidirecional, conduzindo a desregulação emocional e estresse. O primeiro estudo endereçou participantes expostos a estes estressores ambientais, policiais militares, que constituem grupo de risco. Para verificação de dados de saúde mental nessa população, eles foram avaliados com relação às crenças sobre emoções, ansiedade, depressão, fadiga e medo de avaliação negativa. Diferenças significativas foram encontradas entre o grupo policial e o controle, com o grupo de policiais apresentando índices elevados de sintomas de fadiga, depressão e ansiedade com relação aos escores totais das escalas. Também, altas taxas de prevalência foram encontradas para a população policial para esses mesmos sintomas, que dobraram em comparação aos controles, o que aponta para a gravidade clínica destes sintomas. Acreditamos ser a primeira vez que dados de prevalência são relatados em forças policias, constituindo uma importante contribuição do presente estudo. A partir desses resultados, é possível sugerir programas para policiais que enderecem a saúde mental, em especial intervenções que contemplem a regulação das emoções, visando gerenciamento dos sintomas mais graves. O segundo estudo buscou por meio da validação brasileira do Questionário de Regulação Emocional para a população adulta, investigar a relação entre estratégias de regulação emocional, crenças sobre emoções e alexitimia, fatores emocionais que podem ter uma forte associação. A supressão emocional se apresentou uma estratégia pouco adaptativa pela associação com maiores níveis de crenças sobre emoções e alexitimia, merecendo maior atenção nos tratamentos pelos resultados encontrados no presente estudo, que corroboram com a literatura, e ainda, pela intensidade de sua presença em diferentes grupos clínicos. Além disso, acreditamos ser a primeira vez que é observada a relação entre os contructos de crenças disfuncionais sobre emoções negativas e alexitimia, e que as propriedades psicométricas do instrumento são investigadas na população adulta, o que representa a relevância do segundo estudo. Assim, de maneira geral, os resultados apontam para uma correlação entre as variáveis clínicas citadas, com uma influência mais sutil que o esperado das crenças no primeiro estudo, mas com associações em ambos que apontam para a presença das crenças como disfuncionais pela vinculação com maiores níveis de depressão, medo de avaliação negativa, supressão emocional e alexitimia. / [en] Dysfunctional beliefs about negative emotions are associated with symptoms such as anxiety, depression, fatigue, fear of negative evaluation, less search for social support and emotional suppression. Emotional suppression is a counterproductive emotion regulation strategy related to difficulties such as lower levels of understanding and greater undesirable emotional states. Unhelpful beliefs are also related to different clinical conditions, and may also come from environmental factors. These beliefs act as a risk factor and vulnerability for certain groups, leading to higher rates of symptoms, emotional dysregulation and stress. The first study addressed participants exposed to such environmental stressors, namely military policemen. To investigate mental health data in this population, participants were assessed for beliefs about emotions, anxiety, depression, fatigue and fear of negative assessment. Results indicates high scores in the scales for fatigue, depression and anxiety, with high prevalence rates of these same symptoms in the at-risk group. To the best of out knowlwdge, this is the first time that fatigue prevalence rates are described in the literature. Considering what has been exposed so far, it is possible to suggest programs for policemen that address mental health, especially interventions that contemplate emotion regulation. The second study sought to validate the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for the Brazilian adult population, investigating the relationship between emotion regulation strategies, beliefs about emotions and alexithymia. The results point to a correlation between the mentioned clinical variables, albeit with a more subtle influence than expected in the first study. Furthermore, suppression is a strategy that deserves greater attention due to the high association with variables present in different clinical groups and with emotional difficulties, such as alexithymia and high levels of unhelpful beliefs. Emotional suppression was shown to be a non adaptative emotion regulation strategy, presenting correlations with high levels of beliefs about emotions and alexithymia. Considering the present results as well as the existing literature, emotional suppression should be adressed in future clinical trials. In addition, this is the first time that the relation between beliefs about emotions and alexithymia is observed and that the psychometic properties of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire are investigated in adult population. Thus, in general, results points to a correlation between the clinical variables cited above, with a more subtle influence of beliefs about emotions in the first study, but in both with associations that point to the dysfunctional nature of these beliefs, by presenting associations with high levels of depression, fear of negative evaluation, emotional suppression and alexithymia.