Title: Descriptive geometry applications in cartography Author: Jana Vlčková Department: Department of Mathematics Education Supervisor: RNDr. Vlasta Moravcová, Ph.D., Department of Mathematics Education Abstract: This thesis is focused on constructions of geographic nets in maps and serves as a base for studies and teaching for teachers and students of secondary schools or universities, which are focused on the cartography field. The thesis contains seven chapters, the first of which describes basic terms used in the thesis. Other chapters deal with the analysis of chosen cartography projections, whereas first three chapters concerns with the projection of the globe into a plane, another two chapters concerns with a cylindrical surface and the last one concerns with a conical surface. Constructive tasks, which serve for practising the subject matter, are enclosed for each chapter. Key words: cartographic projection, azimuthal projection, ortographic projection, gno- monic projection, stereographic projection, cylindrical projection, conical projection 1

When creating a map, the amount of data and which geographical information chosen to bepresented are decided based on the purpose of the map. Trafikverket is responsible for theNational Road Database that is a reference road network with a large amount of dataconnected to it. The database is built at a carriageway level where several links can be usedto represent a single road. In this thesis the database has been studied as well as thepossibilities to create an automatic workflow that creates a generalisation to road level. Someapplications and analyses that use this database are requesting input data of a higher level ofdetail. It is also found important from a cartographic point of view. Possibilities to create alinear referencing for the data between the different levels was studied as well, to make theupdates between the levels easier and not having the need to maintain two differentdatabases. It would make it possible to inherit attributes and the generic features connectedto the network.The first fully automated workflow for a generalisation of an entire map was developed in theNetherlands in 2014. Several other agencies in Sweden and Norway are currently working ongeneralisations as well and using different approaches. Statens Vegvesen, which is theNational Road Agency in Norway, has already implemented the different levels of detail intheir road database. Lantmäteriet currently has a project where their goal is to create a fullyautomated map to easily change to a larger scale.After studying the programs used in other generalisations and which programs Trafikverketnormally use, FME and ArcGIS were chosen to be used in this thesis. A small study area waschosen, and the proper data was collected from the National Road Database. The study wasconducted by a set of experiments and trying different parameter values in order to obtain asatisfactory result.Three different areas where studied, where the goal was to find a sequence of functions thatsuccessfully generalised all the areas. The areas were parallel roads, complex intersectionsand roundabouts. The result consists of a suggested workflow, but alterations hade to bemade manually since it was not possible to find a fully automated generalisation for the areachosen. Therefore, a set of functions and tools that could be developed were collected as wellin the end to make a more automated workflow possible.The result found in this thesis show that if the cartographic generalisations are more studiedand examined it should be possible to get a more automated workflow to create ageneralisation between the different level of detail. However, it might be difficult to get theworkflow fully automated due to the complexity of the intersections. / När en karta skapas baseras mängden data och vilken geografisk information som skaförmedlas beroende på syftet med kartan. Trafikverket ansvarar för den NationellaVägdatabasen som är ett referensvägnät med en stor mäng data kopplad till vägnätet.Referensvägnätet är byggt på en körbanenivå. I det här arbetet har databasen studerats ochvilka möjligheter som finns för att skapa en automatisk generalisering till vägnivå. Det finnsett behov att representera data på en annan detaljnivå för vissa applikationer och analysersom använder sig av vägdatabasen. Det är även viktigt utifrån ett kartografiskt synsätt.Möjligheterna att skapa en linjär referering mellan de olika detaljnivåerna har undersökts, föratt förenkla uppdateringar mellan nivåerna samt att inte behöva ajourhålla två olikadatabaser. Det skulle även göra det möjligt att attribut och företeelser kan ärvas mellan deolika nivåerna.Det fösta helt automatiserade arbetsflödet för en generalisering av en karta utformades 2014i Nederländerna. Flera andra myndigheter i Sverige och Norge arbetar just nu med den härtypen av generaliseringar och har använt sig av olika tillvägagångssätt. Statens Vegvesen,vilket är den statliga myndighet som ansvarar för vägar i Norge, har redan implementerat olikadetaljnivåer i deras vägdatabas. Lantmäteriet har ett projekt med målet att skapa en fulltautomatisk generalisering för olika skalor.Efter att ha studerat de olika program som vanligtvis används vid generaliseringar samt vilkaprogram som Trafikverket använder sig av så valdes FME och ArcGIS i det här arbetet. Ettmindre studieområde valdes ut och relevant data hämtades från den NationellaVägdatabasen. Studien bestod av olika experiment och tester av olika parametervärden föratt få ett acceptabelt resultat.Tre olika områden studerades, där målet var att hitta en följd operationer som skapade enlämplig generalisering för alla områden. De tre olika områdena var parallella vägar,trafikplatser och cirkulationsplatser. Resultatet består av förslag på ett arbetsflöde, men delarhar behövt göras manuellt då det inte var möjligt att hitta en helt automatiseradgeneralisering för det valda området. Förslag på olika funktioner och verktyg som kanutvecklas har sammanställts, för att kunna utvecklade ett mer automatiserat arbetssätt.Resultatet av det här arbetet visar att om kartografiska generaliseringar studeras och testasmer skulle det kunna vara möjligt att skapa ett mer automatiserat arbetssätt med syfte attmöjliggöra generaliseringar mellan olika detaljnivåer. Det kan däremot vara svårt att få dettahelt automatiserat på grund av de olika komplexa trafikplatserna.

[pt] O fenômeno da Intolerância é complexo, duradouro e se apresenta de diferentes formas, entre elas, sua manifestação religiosa. Por isso, frente a todas essas dificuldades, ele precisa ser debatido nos vários setores da sociedade, incluindo o ambiente escolar. Assim, o presente trabalho aborda a sua discussão por intermédio da Educação Geográfica, destacando a linguagem como elemento importante para tal situação. O pensamento geográfico, elemento formador da Educação Geográfica, é determinante para a compreensão da realidade, logo permite que o fenômeno em questão seja entendido. Associado ao pensamento geográfico, a linguagem cartográfica, que constitui uma linguagem própria da Geografia, pode representar uma ferramenta valorosa no combate à Intolerância. Nessa perspectiva, vislumbramos, na Cartografia Social um caminho poderoso que pode colaborar para a transformação do cenário da Intolerância. / [en] The phenomenon of Intolerance is complex, lasting and presents itself in different ways, including its religious manifestation. Therefore, given all these difficulties, it needs to be debated in various sectors of society, including the school environment. Thus, the present work addresses its discussion through Geographic Education, highlighting language as an important element in such a situation. Geographical thinking, a formative element of Geographic Education, is crucial for understanding reality, and therefore allows the phenomenon in question to be understood. Associated with geographical thinking, the cartographic language, which is a language specific to Geography, can represent a valuable tool in the fight against Intolerance. From this perspective, we see in Social Cartography a powerful path that can contribute to the transformation of the scenario of Intolerance.

[pt] A onipresença das tecnologias de informação e comunicação (TICs) no mundo contemporâneo se tornou fato inquestionável. Novos meios geram novas maneiras de interagir com o mundo. Diante deste cenário, a escola é desafiada a conviver com as transformações implicadas pelas TICs na sociedade e na cultura, visto que as inovações tecnológicas representam uma nova linguagem e levam a um modo de pensar diferente. No âmbito da docência, o desafio reside, entre outros elementos, na revisão do papel do professor e de suas práticas pedagógicas. Com o intuito de analisar de que forma os professores reconfiguram a Didática no contexto da cibercultura, realizamos uma pesquisa de cunho qualitativo em oito escolas municipais de ensino fundamental de segundo segmento, na cidade do Rio de Janeiro. Pretendíamos mergulhar na realidade vivenciada pelos docentes nas suas idiossincrasias e para tal utilizamos dois instrumentos de pesquisa: 24 entrevistas semiestruturadas com professores e gestores escolares e dois grupos focais com os professores de duas das oito escolas selecionadas. A análise de dados foi desenvolvida recorrendo à metáfora cartográfica, estratégia metodológica que nos permitiu evidenciar três categorias de reconfiguração das práticas dos professores no contexto da cibercultura: o mapa, a carta e a planta. Os professores que reconfiguraram sua didática com o uso de TICs foram aqueles que perceberam, entenderam e vivenciaram suas práticas a partir da escala local, posto que a sala de aula é o lócus da ação pedagógica. Por isso defendemos que é legítimo lançar mão da reflexão na experiência para cartografar uma Didática contextualizada culturalmente. / [en] The vast presence of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the contemporary world is unquestionable. New media generate new ways of interacting with the world and of conceiving it. Faced with this scenario, the school is challenged to coexist with the transformations implied by ICTs in society and culture. Technological innovations represent a new language and lead to a different way of thinking. In the scope of teaching, the challenge lies, among other elements, in the revision of the teacher s role and his/her pedagogical practices. In order to analyze how teachers reconfigure Didactics in the context of cyberculture, we carried out a qualitative research in eight primary schools in the second segment, in the municipality of Rio de Janeiro. In order to delve into the reality experienced by teachers in their idiosyncrasies, we used two research instruments: 24 semi-structured interviews with teachers and school managers and two focus groups with teachers from two of the eight selected schools. The data analysis was developed using a cartographic metaphor, a methodological strategy that allowed us to highlight three categories of reconfiguration of teachers practices in the context of cyberculture: the map, the chart and the plant. The teachers who reconfigured their didactics with the use of ICTs were those who perceived, understood and experienced their practices from the local scale, since the classroom is the locus of pedagogical action. They elaborated their practice as if it were a plant. Therefore, we argue that it is legitimate to use reflection in the experience to map a culturally contextualized Didactics.

Herzinfarkt und Tod stellen häufige Folgen der koronaren Herzerkrankung dar, die durch eine rechtzeitige aortokoronare Bypassoperation vermieden werden können. Im Gegensatz zur klassischen offenen Operation bieten minimal invasive Verfahren entscheidende Vorteile. Die erschwerte Orientierung stellt jedoch eine große Herausforderung in der minimal invasiven Herzchirurgie dar, insbesondere bei der Verwendung telemanipulatorischer Systeme, wie bei der total endoskopischen Bypassoperation (TECAB). Die Entwicklung des „Surgical Cartographic Navigation System“ (SCNS) verspricht eine deutliche Verbesserung der Orientierung des Chirurgen mithilfe der Nutzung modernster Techniken der Augmentierten Realität. Hierbei wird auf der Basis von CT-Datensätzen ein virtuelles Herzmodell geschaffen, welches als Grundlage der assistierten Navigation dient. Im Speziellen wird bei der durch das SCNS unterstützten TECAB Operation die aufzufindende Koronararterie in das Sichtfeld des Endoskopes projiziert („augmentiert“). Ziel dieses Dissertationsvorhabens war die Evaluation der klinischen Anwendbarkeit des SCNS während einer Simulation einer Inzision mit dem da Vinci™-System auf fünf individuell angefertigten Herzphantomen. Es sollte überprüft werden, ob der Chirurg mit Hilfe der Unterstützung durch die SCNS Sicht mit eingeblendeter Koronararterie einen direkten Kontakt zur LAD (Left Anterior Descending), der häufigsten Zielarterie der TECAB, herstellen kann. In einem Studienkollektiv, bestehend aus zehn medizinisch unerfahrenen Personen und zehn Herzchirurgen, wurde die Treffergenauigkeit der SCNS-gestützten Auffindung der LAD in insgesamt 300 Testversuchen überprüft. Insgesamt konnte die Arterie in 58 % der Fälle korrekt identifiziert werden. Dabei lag kein signifikanter Unterschied zwischen den beiden Gruppen vor. Hiermit konnte die klinische Anwendbarkeit des SCNS für die TECAB erstmals gezeigt werden. Des Weiteren wurden zwei Faktoren als vordringliche Ziele für zukünftige Fortentwicklungen identifiziert: Die Optimierung von Landmarken für die Registrierung des Herzens sowie die verbesserte optische Darstellung der Augmentierten Realität im Endoskopiesichtfeld. Zusammengefasst konnte in diesem Dissertationsvorhaben in einer umfassenden Studie gezeigt werden, dass das SCNS einen erfolgversprechenden Lösungsansatz für die Behebung kritischer Orientierungsprobleme der minimal invasiven Herzchirurgie bei der TECAB bietet. Die hier gewonnenen Erkenntnisse stellen die Grundlage für weitergehende Studien zur Fortentwicklung des SCNS dar, die vor einem klinischen Ersteinsatz erfolgen müssen. / In the therapy of coronary heart disease minimally invasive and endoscopic methods offer considerable benefits to the patient, while for the surgeon difficult orientation and missing haptic feedback are still the leading problems in Endoscopic Bypass Grafting with telemanipulative systems. To support the surgeon with improved vision, a three dimensional model of the coronary artery tree based on CT scans is integrated into the view of the endoscope. The “Surgical Cartographic Navigation System” (SCNS) is a tool which provides this feature called Augmented Reality (AR). Aim of this study was the first technical analysis of the SCNS during a simulation of an incision with the da Vinci™ surgical system on an electronic heart phantom. The hypotheses was that with the guidance of the SCNS augmented reality view, the surgeon can perform a direct contact to the Left Anterior Descending Coronary Artery (LAD). Five anatomically correct heart phantoms were created using the rapid prototyping technology. The heart models were covered with an electrical conducting layer for the detection of the contact with the coronary artery or with the surrounding tissue. A 3D model of the coronary artery tree based on a CT scan was registered to the heart phantom and overlaid into the video screen of the da Vinci™ robot master console. Ten inexperienced medical students and ten experienced heart surgeons used the SCNS in a surgery simulation with the goal of finding the LAD artery and contacting the LAD with robot instruments. In 300 test runs 58 % of both groups hit the LAD correctly. The overlaid information created with the SCNS enables the surgeon to correctly identify the coronary artery. The clinical applicability of the SCNS for the TECAB Operation is hereby demonstrated. These findings are the basis for further studies on the further development of the SCNS, that is necessary before a clinical first-use.

Herzinfarkt und Tod stellen häufige Folgen der koronaren Herzerkrankung dar, die durch eine rechtzeitige aortokoronare Bypassoperation vermieden werden können. Im Gegensatz zur klassischen offenen Operation bieten minimal invasive Verfahren entscheidende Vorteile. Die erschwerte Orientierung stellt jedoch eine große Herausforderung in der minimal invasiven Herzchirurgie dar, insbesondere bei der Verwendung telemanipulatorischer Systeme, wie bei der total endoskopischen Bypassoperation (TECAB). Die Entwicklung des „Surgical Cartographic Navigation System“ (SCNS) verspricht eine deutliche Verbesserung der Orientierung des Chirurgen mithilfe der Nutzung modernster Techniken der Augmentierten Realität. Hierbei wird auf der Basis von CT-Datensätzen ein virtuelles Herzmodell geschaffen, welches als Grundlage der assistierten Navigation dient. Im Speziellen wird bei der durch das SCNS unterstützten TECAB Operation die aufzufindende Koronararterie in das Sichtfeld des Endoskopes projiziert („augmentiert“). Ziel dieses Dissertationsvorhabens war die Evaluation der klinischen Anwendbarkeit des SCNS während einer Simulation einer Inzision mit dem da Vinci™-System auf fünf individuell angefertigten Herzphantomen. Es sollte überprüft werden, ob der Chirurg mit Hilfe der Unterstützung durch die SCNS Sicht mit eingeblendeter Koronararterie einen direkten Kontakt zur LAD (Left Anterior Descending), der häufigsten Zielarterie der TECAB, herstellen kann. In einem Studienkollektiv, bestehend aus zehn medizinisch unerfahrenen Personen und zehn Herzchirurgen, wurde die Treffergenauigkeit der SCNS-gestützten Auffindung der LAD in insgesamt 300 Testversuchen überprüft. Insgesamt konnte die Arterie in 58 % der Fälle korrekt identifiziert werden. Dabei lag kein signifikanter Unterschied zwischen den beiden Gruppen vor. Hiermit konnte die klinische Anwendbarkeit des SCNS für die TECAB erstmals gezeigt werden. Des Weiteren wurden zwei Faktoren als vordringliche Ziele für zukünftige Fortentwicklungen identifiziert: Die Optimierung von Landmarken für die Registrierung des Herzens sowie die verbesserte optische Darstellung der Augmentierten Realität im Endoskopiesichtfeld. Zusammengefasst konnte in diesem Dissertationsvorhaben in einer umfassenden Studie gezeigt werden, dass das SCNS einen erfolgversprechenden Lösungsansatz für die Behebung kritischer Orientierungsprobleme der minimal invasiven Herzchirurgie bei der TECAB bietet. Die hier gewonnenen Erkenntnisse stellen die Grundlage für weitergehende Studien zur Fortentwicklung des SCNS dar, die vor einem klinischen Ersteinsatz erfolgen müssen.:1 Bibliographische Beschreibung 2 2 Inhaltsverzeichnis 3 3 Einleitung und theoretischer Hintergrund 7 3.1 Entwicklung der Herzchirurgie 8 3.2 Behandlungskonzepte der koronaren Herzerkrankung 8 3.3 Minimal invasive operative Verfahren 10 3.3.1 OPCAB 10 3.3.2 MIDCAB 11 3.3.3 TECAB 12 3.3.3.1 Entwicklung der telemanipulatorischen Verfahren 12 3.3.3.2 Das da Vinci™-System 13 3.3.3.3 Operationstechnik der TECAB 15 3.3.3.4 Aktueller Stand 16 3.4 Orientierungsprobleme während der TECAB Operation 17 3.5 Augmentierte Realität als Orientierungshilfe 17 3.6 SCNS (Surgical Cartographic Navigation System) 19 4 Material und Methoden 21 4.1 Materialliste 21 4.2 Methoden 22 4.2.1 Modellentstehung 22 4.2.1.1 Segmentierung 22 4.2.1.2 Landmarken 26 4.2.1.3 Rapid Prototyping 27 4.2.1.4 Elektronisches Herzphantom 28 4.2.2 Versuchsaufbau 30 4.2.2.1 Intrinsische Kalibrierung 30 4.2.2.2 Tracking 31 4.2.2.3 Extrinsische Kalibrierung 32 4.2.2.4 Registrierung 33 4.2.2.5 Overlay 34 4.2.2.6 Testpersonen 37 4.2.2.7 Das da Vinci™ Telemanipulationssystem 37 4.2.3 Das Experiment 37 5 Ergebnisse 41 5.1 Herstellung der Herzphantome 41 5.2 Korrekte Identifikation der LAD 43 5.3 Einfluss der Herzmodelle auf die LAD-Identifikation 47 6 Diskussion 49 7 Zusammenfassung der Arbeit 56 8 Literaturverzeichnis 59 9 Anhang 64 9.1 Abbildungsverzeichnis 64 9.2 Tabellenverzeichnis 66 9.3 Abkürzungsverzeichnis 67 9.4 Ergebnistabellen 68 9.5 Danksagung 70 9.6 Erklärung über die eigenständige Abfassung der Arbeit 71 9.7 Lebenslauf 72 / In the therapy of coronary heart disease minimally invasive and endoscopic methods offer considerable benefits to the patient, while for the surgeon difficult orientation and missing haptic feedback are still the leading problems in Endoscopic Bypass Grafting with telemanipulative systems. To support the surgeon with improved vision, a three dimensional model of the coronary artery tree based on CT scans is integrated into the view of the endoscope. The “Surgical Cartographic Navigation System” (SCNS) is a tool which provides this feature called Augmented Reality (AR). Aim of this study was the first technical analysis of the SCNS during a simulation of an incision with the da Vinci™ surgical system on an electronic heart phantom. The hypotheses was that with the guidance of the SCNS augmented reality view, the surgeon can perform a direct contact to the Left Anterior Descending Coronary Artery (LAD). Five anatomically correct heart phantoms were created using the rapid prototyping technology. The heart models were covered with an electrical conducting layer for the detection of the contact with the coronary artery or with the surrounding tissue. A 3D model of the coronary artery tree based on a CT scan was registered to the heart phantom and overlaid into the video screen of the da Vinci™ robot master console. Ten inexperienced medical students and ten experienced heart surgeons used the SCNS in a surgery simulation with the goal of finding the LAD artery and contacting the LAD with robot instruments. In 300 test runs 58 % of both groups hit the LAD correctly. The overlaid information created with the SCNS enables the surgeon to correctly identify the coronary artery. The clinical applicability of the SCNS for the TECAB Operation is hereby demonstrated. These findings are the basis for further studies on the further development of the SCNS, that is necessary before a clinical first-use.:1 Bibliographische Beschreibung 2 2 Inhaltsverzeichnis 3 3 Einleitung und theoretischer Hintergrund 7 3.1 Entwicklung der Herzchirurgie 8 3.2 Behandlungskonzepte der koronaren Herzerkrankung 8 3.3 Minimal invasive operative Verfahren 10 3.3.1 OPCAB 10 3.3.2 MIDCAB 11 3.3.3 TECAB 12 3.3.3.1 Entwicklung der telemanipulatorischen Verfahren 12 3.3.3.2 Das da Vinci™-System 13 3.3.3.3 Operationstechnik der TECAB 15 3.3.3.4 Aktueller Stand 16 3.4 Orientierungsprobleme während der TECAB Operation 17 3.5 Augmentierte Realität als Orientierungshilfe 17 3.6 SCNS (Surgical Cartographic Navigation System) 19 4 Material und Methoden 21 4.1 Materialliste 21 4.2 Methoden 22 4.2.1 Modellentstehung 22 4.2.1.1 Segmentierung 22 4.2.1.2 Landmarken 26 4.2.1.3 Rapid Prototyping 27 4.2.1.4 Elektronisches Herzphantom 28 4.2.2 Versuchsaufbau 30 4.2.2.1 Intrinsische Kalibrierung 30 4.2.2.2 Tracking 31 4.2.2.3 Extrinsische Kalibrierung 32 4.2.2.4 Registrierung 33 4.2.2.5 Overlay 34 4.2.2.6 Testpersonen 37 4.2.2.7 Das da Vinci™ Telemanipulationssystem 37 4.2.3 Das Experiment 37 5 Ergebnisse 41 5.1 Herstellung der Herzphantome 41 5.2 Korrekte Identifikation der LAD 43 5.3 Einfluss der Herzmodelle auf die LAD-Identifikation 47 6 Diskussion 49 7 Zusammenfassung der Arbeit 56 8 Literaturverzeichnis 59 9 Anhang 64 9.1 Abbildungsverzeichnis 64 9.2 Tabellenverzeichnis 66 9.3 Abkürzungsverzeichnis 67 9.4 Ergebnistabellen 68 9.5 Danksagung 70 9.6 Erklärung über die eigenständige Abfassung der Arbeit 71 9.7 Lebenslauf 72

The thesis brings insight to the problem of geosocietal differentiation of the world and its interpretation in the schemes of (major) world regional structures. These schemes are matter of different presentation and representation and have utility in organization of both scientific and non-scientific practices. A more detailed analysis and discussion of academic approaches to global macroregionalization was provided, which was followed by an analysis of the views of so-called global actors. Assessed was also situation in Czech and Slovak education (geographical textbooks). Perceptions of regional schemes are represented by views of geography students. Struggles with objectification were related to several-variant-based consideration of internal homogeneity and external heterogeneity of macroregions. Also assessed were world economic flows, distribution of integrated power potential and its development (1950 - 2008). Conclusions bring synthesis of the findings, as well as an outline of possible future research topics.

Ma thèse porte sur les savoirs cartographiques en situation coloniale, au nord de la péninsule indochinoise. J'y envisage la manière dont des espaces frontaliers, disputés par des États coloniaux et nationaux, ont été représentés et construits, entre 1885 et 1914, par les différents acteurs en présence: empires britannique, français et chinois, royaume de Siam, populations locales. L'enjeu est de dépasser les histoires nationales afin de proposer une étude croisée des politiques géographiques britannique et française clans des marges impériales. Ce croisement révèle trois processus centraux. Tout d'abord, il montre que la cartographie des confins constitue un observatoire de la production des territoires et de la définition des entités étatiques et coloniales. Il montre égalemen1 le rôle de la cartographie au service des relations internationales dans un contexte de forte compétition. Enfin, il permet de lire les relations entre politiques géographiques impériales et pratiques de terrain : par-delà la manichéenne opposition entre « savoirs traditionnels » et «sciences modernes » se dessine une riche dialectique entre savoirs coloniaux et savoirs vernaculaires. / My dissertation offers a connected history of Northern lndochinese Peninsula during the early years of colonization (1885-1914). I discuss the link between cartography and the empire and question the construction of the imperial territories through maps. I see how the border areas that were disputed by the colonial and national States have been represented and constructed, between 1885 and 1914, by the different actors: British, French and Chinese empires, Siam realm, local peoples. I argue the central value of a spatially marginalized territory, for which Willem van Schendel has spoken of a "geography of ignorance". Mostly unknown from the Europeans, inhabited by ethnic minorities, it is actually a border space. Looking at the empires from their borders is a good way of studying the central imperial politics. Besides, cartography plays a role in the international relations in a context of high competition. Finally, there are links between the different cartographies at that lime, which show the rote of cartographic knowledge in the colonial encounter in Burma and in Vietnam as well.

Uma proporção significativa dos alunos dos cursos de graduação em Geografia do IGDEMA/UFAL apresenta dificuldades na aprendizagem de Cartografia, particularmente de escala cartográfica linear. Pouquíssimos trabalhos apresentaram situações similares em outras universidades do Brasil e propuseram alternativas mitigadoras, embora com ênfase no curso de licenciatura. Nesse contexto, o presente trabalho tomou como objetivo desenvolver um procedimento de otimização da aprendizagem de escala cartográfica linear por meio da conscientização e motivação prévias discentes e contrapartidas bilaterais na aplicação de um processo de ensino-aprendizagem junto aos alunos do segundo período de graduação em Geografia do IGDEMA/UFAL em 2013/2. As bases teóricas adotadas para tal foram um conceito da psicologia pedagógica processo educativo trilateral , dois conceitos da teoria socioconstrutivista internalização das funções psicológicas superiores e zona de desenvolvimento proximal e a teoria da andragogia. Coerente com o objetivo e com respaldos das bases teóricas, foi aplicado o método de aula expositiva adaptado à implementação do processo pedagógico. Este processo envolveu a fase de avaliação prévia (exposição e prática preparatórias e posterior diálogo) e a fase de avaliação definitiva (exposições e práticas mais concentradas). Por ser preponderante, a avaliação definitiva precisou atender às exigências de planejamento e procedimentos administrativos, a fim de se minimizar a relativa falta de fidedignidade de seus escores para, em seguida, submeter-se a duas etapas obrigatórias do processo da sua validação. A primeira, que foi a verificação do requisito da validade, se deu por processo qualitativo em prol da representatividade de seu conteúdo mediante o universo Escala Cartográfica e dessa aprendizagem; e a segunda etapa, verificação do requisito da fidedignidade, processou-se pela análise estatística de consistência interna entre seus quesitos. Como a avaliação definitiva atendeu a esses requisitos de validação, as suas medidas de aprendizagem se tornaram confiáveis para os testes de diferenças aplicados conjuntamente com as medidas de aprendizagem similares da avaliação prévia. Assim, obteve-se o nível de êxito do processo pedagógico aplicado. Como resultado, a comparação dos dados das duas avaliações não indicou evolução esperada das notas de cada aluno. Então como causas desse resultado, em função da parte expressiva dos alunos, podem ser citadas: o processo aplicado se revelou ambicioso, a prática de variados exercícios mesmo com auxílio de demonstrações de cálculos revelou-se um desafio e modificações de escala cartográfica se revelaram problemática. Dessa forma, a conclusão é que esse processo de ensino-aprendizagem precisa ser revisto em parte, ou seja, revelam-se necessários procedimentos pedagógicos para esses estudantes ainda dependentes em virtude de fatores limitantes, particularmente a base matemática ineficiente. / A significant proportion of the undergraduates in the geography courses of the IGDEMA/UFAL present learning difficulties, particularly in relation to liner cartographic scale. Very few papers have identified similar situations in other universities in Brazil and have proposed mitigation alternatives, although with an emphasis on teaching degree courses. In this context, this work aimed at developing a learning procedure in order to optimize the learning of linear cartographic scale through awareness development and previous student motivation, as well as through bilateral counterparts in implementing a teaching/learning process focused on the se undergraduates of the second term in the first year of studies in Geography course of the IGDEMA/UFAL program, in 2013/2. The theoretical framework of the study included one concept of the pedagogical psychology trilateral educational process , two concepts of the social constructivist theory internalization of higher psychological functions, and proximal development zone as well as the andragogy theory. In order to be coherent with the study objective and the adopted theoretical framework, the expositive teaching method was used, although adapted to the target pedagogical process. This process involved a prior evaluation phase (presentation and preparatory practices and subsequent dialogue) and the phase of final assessment (presentations and more focused practices). Because it is preponderant, the definitive assessment had to meet planning requirements and administrative procedures, in order to minimize the relative unreliability of the scores, so that it could undergo the two mandatory steps of the process of validation. The first step verification of the validity requirement was implemented through a qualitative process, observing the representativeness of its content, based upon the Cartographic Scale universe and related learning; and the second step, verification of the reliability requirement, was developed through statistical analysis for the internal consistency of the adopted questions. As the final evaluation met these validation requirements, their learning measures were considered to be reliable for testing differences, applied within the similar learning measures of the prior assessment. As a result, the comparative data of both evaluations did not indicate the expected evolution in the students grades. Then, as those results reasons, considering the biggest amount of the students, we may cite: the applied process was too much ambitious, the practice of varied exercises though with calculation demonstrations, could be considered a challenge, and cartographic scale changes seemed to cause problems to them. Hence, the conclusion is that this teaching/learning process needs to be revised in part, which means, pedagogical proceeds might be necessary for those still dependent students, considering these limitation factors, particularly the insufficient mathematics basis.

Cette étude aborde la conception de l'espace tunisien depuis l'Occident au croisement des notions territoriales Africa et Tunis, à travers la représentation cartographique à l'époque moderne du XVIe siècle au XVIIIe siècle, d'après des sources issues principalement des collections de la Bibliothèque nationale de France. Cette étude a pour ambition de proposer un travail d'investigation de l'image cartographique de l'espace tunisien en privilégiant deux approches : une approche structurale historiographique et une approche quantitative. L'objectif principal de la présente étude est de détecter les grandes phases historiques dans la représentation de l'espace tunisien, à partir d'un corpus assez dense. Je propose d'individualiser trois groupes d'images cartographiques caractérisées par des déformations similaires, qui me paraissent correspondre à des étapes importantes de l'évolution cartographique moderne ou encore à de grandes ruptures dans sa construction. Ces étapes correspondent à chaque fois à de nouveaux récits de voyages et par la suite à une évolution du regard. L'ensemble des cartes est représentatif non pas de l'édition cartographique mais de l'évolution des techniques et des connaissances géographiques. Les « cartes-modèles » ou encore les « cartes-mères » que j'identifie dans un premier temps, sont ensuite l'objet d'une expérimentation à partir de méthodes quantitatives. Cette approche, qui porte sur les déformations des surfaces, vise à une comparaison entre deux surfaces : une surface-source supposée « exacte » et une surface-image correspondant aux exemples historiques analysés. / This study deals with the concept of the Tunisian space, seen from the West as an intersection of the territorial concepts of Africa and Tunis, throughout the cartographical representation of the modern period, from the 16th to the 18th century. The study is essentially based on cartographic material from the collections of the French National Library. This thesis aims to investigate the cartographic representation of the Tunisian space through two main approaches: the first one is historiographical and structural at heart while the second is quantitative. The main objective of this present study is to detect the essential historical steps in the cartographic representation, from wide sources. So far, I suggest identifying three groups of cartographic images, which are characterized by similar deformations. These images correspond with important stages of the modern cartographical image or even major breaks in its construction, connected with new travel accounts and an evolving representation. Ali maps are not only representative of the cartographical edition but also of the development of technology and geographical knowledge. The « model-maps » along with « mother­maps », once identified, are subsequently subjected to experiments, through a quantitative approach. This approach, which centers on surfaces deformations, is meant to establish a comparison between two types of surfaces: one, the source-surface, which is presumed to be accurate and the other, the image-surface, which corresponds with the historical examples we consider.