Background: Increased pressure, rising demand and cost constraints have driven a need for radical service re-design in the NHS. To deliver re-design objectives it is necessary to understand how they are perceived by service users and providers. Aim: To investigate the views of patients and health care professionals (HCP) on aspects of health policy and service re-design affecting primary care. Setting: Patients and HCPs from one geographical area in England. Method: Themes from phase one qualitative interviews were explored quantitatively using a questionnaire in phase two and a discrete choice experiment (DCE) in phase three. Factor analysis was used to explore HCP responses in phase two. In phase three the DCE was administered to explore patients‟ relative priorities of a range of attributes. Results: HCPs had concerns that the Quality Outcomes Framework (QOF) detracted from the patient‟s agenda and did not improve health outcomes. GPs felt continuity of care was important Monday through Friday but were not keen on its provision out of hours. Neither did they feel nurses could run chronic disease management clinics without a GP present. Patients felt continuity could be provided by different HCPs for different conditionsPatients stated continuity of care and consultation duration were the most important attributes in a primary care service. However, in the DCE they prioritised both being seen on the day and by a GP over longer appointments. Patient preference to be seen by a GP may reflect the low uptake of non-medical prescribing in the area. Conclusion: Continuity of care, while remarked as being important to both HCPs and patients, appears less important when weighted against other primary care service attributes. HCPs appear to want longer consultations whereas patients saw time as encompassing both the time to wait for an appointment and consultation length. For patients, the quality of the time with a HCP may be more important than its duration, additionally patients appear to want choice but not necessarily to choose.

Le sujet des migrations internationales a récemment fait l’objet d’une attention sans précédent dans l’opinion publique comme dans les médias. Or, si le débat sur les effets des migrations internationales semble plus que jamais d’actualité, celui-ci attire l’attention des économistes depuis plusieurs décennies déjà. La présente thèse s’insère ainsi dans la littérature économique sur les effets des migrations internationales en proposant trois essais empiriques sur les implications de la mobilité humaine, à la fois pour les migrants, les natifs dans leur pays d’accueil et leurs proches restés dans leur pays d’origine. Le Chapitre 2 revisite de manière empirique l’impact du multiculturalisme (mesuré par un indice de diversité à l’intérieur du groupe des migrants et par des effets de contamination) sur les performances macro-économiques des États Américains sur la période 1960-2010. Nous distinguons les effets du multiculturalisme par niveaux d’éducation, en contrôlant pour les variables standards de la littérature sur la croissance ainsi que pour l’hétérogénéité inobservée et en prenant en compte le statut légal des migrants ainsi que leur âge d’entrée aux États-Unis. Dans le but d’identifier un effet causal, nous comparons plusieurs stratégies d’identification différentes de la littérature existante. Nos résultats convergent vers un effet robuste positif et significatif de la diversité des diplômés du tertiaire sur le PIB par tête. Aucun effet de la diversité pour les niveaux d’éducation inférieurs, ou d’effets de contamination ne sont mis en évidence. Le Chapitre 3 s’insère dans la littérature sur les déterminants de la performance des migrants sur le marché du travail dans leur pays d’accueil. Nous regardons si l’attitude des natifs affecte ou non les durées de chômage des migrants en Allemagne. En utilisant des données de panel (GSOEP) au niveau individuel sur la période 1984-2012 et un modèle de durée, nous trouvons que des niveaux de confiance plus faibles des natifs envers les résidents d’un pays donné (mesurés à l’aide des enquêtes Eurobarometers) sont associés à des durées de chômage plus longues pour les immigrés originaires de ce pays. Nos résultats soulignent le fait que, différents groupes d’immigrés font face à des obstacles différents en fonction de leur origine, pour s’insérer sur le marché du travail.
Le Chapitre 4 cherche quant à lui à comprendre si les migrants au niveau international contribuent ou non au progrès technologique dans les pays en développement en induisant un transfert de connaissances productives de leur pays d’accueil vers leur pays d’origine. En utilisant un indicateur pour le niveau de connaissances productives de chaque pays (ECI) et les stocks bilatéraux de migrants vers 20 pays de l’OCDE, nous montrons que la migration internationale est un canal de transmission important de la technologie. / International migration recently attracted unprecedented public attention and media coverage. However, while the debate on the effects on international migration on the economy seems now more relevant than ever, it already attracts the attention of economic researchers for decades. The present thesis provides three empirical studies that investigate the implications of international migration both for migrants themselves, natives in their host countries and those left behind. Chapter 2 empirically revisits the impact of multiculturalism on the macroeconomic performance of US states over the 1960-2010 period. We test for skill-specific effects of multiculturalism, controlling for standard growth regressors and a variety of fixed effects, and accounting for the age of entry and legal status of immigrants. To identify causation, we compare various instrumentation strategies used in the existing literature. We provide converging and robust evidence of a positive and significant effect of diversity among college-educated immigrants on GDP per capita. Conversly, we find no impact of low-skilled diversity or contamination effects. Chapter 3 fits within the literature looking at the determinants of the performance of immigrants in the destination country labor markets. We investigate how natives’ attitudes affect immigrants’ unemployment duration in Germany. Using individual level panel data from the German Socio Economic Panel from 1984 to 2012, we use survival analysis methods to model immigrants’ unemployment durations. We find that lower trust levels of natives towards the citizens of a given country, measured using Eurobarometer surveys, positively influence the unemployment duration of immigrants originating from this country. Our results highlight the fact that immigrants face different obstacles depending on their origin when it comes to integrating destination country labor markets. Chapter 4 analyses whether international migrants contribute to increasing technological advances in developing countries by inducing a transfer of productive knowledge from developed countries back to migrants’ home countries. Using the Economic Complexity Index as a proxy for the amount of productive knowledge embedded in each countries and bilateral migrant stocks of 20 OECD destination countries, we show that international migration is a strong channel of technological transmission.

La protection des zones littorales contre les agressions naturelles provenant de la mer, et notamment contre le risque de submersion marine, est essentielle pour sécuriser les installations côtières. La prévention de ce risque est assurée par des protections côtières qui sont conçues et régulièrement vérifiées grâce généralement à la définition du concept de niveau de retour d’un événement extrême particulier. Le niveau de retour lié à une période de retour assez grande (de 1000 ans ou plus) est estimé par des méthodes statistiques basées sur la Théorie des Valeurs Extrêmes (TVE). Ces approches statistiques sont appliquées à des séries temporelles d’une variable extrême observée et permettent de connaître la probabilité d’occurrence de telle variable. Dans le passé, les niveaux de retour des aléas maritimes extrêmes étaient estimés le plus souvent à partir de méthodes statistiques appliquées à des séries d’observation locales. En général, les séries locales des niveaux marins sont observées sur une période limitée (pour les niveaux marins environ 50 ans) et on cherche à trouver des bonnes estimations des extrêmes associées à des périodes de retour très grandes. Pour cette raison, de nombreuses méthodologies sont utilisées pour augmenter la taille des échantillons des extrêmes et réduire les incertitudes sur les estimations. En génie côtier, une des approches actuellement assez utilisées est l’analyse régionale. L’analyse régionale est indiquée par Weiss (2014) comme une manière très performante pour réduire les incertitudes sur les estimations des événements extrêmes. Le principe de cette méthodologie est de profiter de la grande disponibilité spatiale des données observées sur différents sites pour créer des régions homogènes. Cela permet d’estimer des lois statistiques sur des échantillons régionaux plus étendus regroupant tous les événements extrêmes qui ont frappé un ou plusieurs sites de la région (...) Cela ainsi que le caractère particulier de chaque événement historique ne permet pas son utilisation dans une analyse régionale classique. Une méthodologie statistique appelée FAB qui permet de réaliser une analyse régionale tenant en compte les données historiques est développée dans ce manuscrit. Élaborée pour des données POT (Peaks Over Threshold), cette méthode est basée sur une nouvelle définition d’une durée d’observation, appelée durée crédible, locale et régionale et elle est capable de tenir en compte dans l’analyse statistique les trois types les plus classiques de données historiques (données ponctuelles, données définies par un intervalle, données au-dessus d’une borne inférieure). En plus, une approche pour déterminer un seuil d’échantillonnage optimal est définie dans cette étude. La méthode FAB est assez polyvalente et permet d’estimer des niveaux de retour soit dans un cadre fréquentiste soit dans un cadre bayésien. Une application de cette méthodologie est réalisée pour une base de données enregistrées des surcotes de pleine mer (données systématiques) et 14 surcotes de pleine mer historiques collectées pour différents sites positionnés le long des côtes françaises, anglaises, belges et espagnoles de l’Atlantique, de la Manche et de la mer du Nord. Enfin, ce manuscrit examine la problématique de la découverte et de la validation des données historiques / The protection of coastal areas against the risk of flooding is necessary to safeguard all types of waterside structures and, in particular, nuclear power plants. The prevention of flooding is guaranteed by coastal protection commonly built and verified thanks to the definition of the return level’s concept of a particular extreme event. Return levels linked to very high return periods (up to 1000 years) are estimated through statistical methods based on the Extreme Value Theory (EVT). These statistical approaches are applied to time series of a particular extreme variable observed and enables the computation of its occurrence probability. In the past, return levels of extreme coastal events were frequently estimated by applying statistical methods to time series of local observations. Local series of sea levels are typically observed in too short a period (for sea levels about 50 years) in order to compute reliable estimations linked to high return periods. For this reason, several approaches are used to enlarge the size of the extreme data samples and to reduce uncertainties of their estimations. Currently, one of the most widely used methods in coastal engineering is the Regional Analysis. Regional Analysis is denoted by Weiss (2014) as a valid means to reduce uncertainties in the estimations of extreme events. The main idea of this method is to take advantage of the wide spatial availability of observed data in different locations in order to form homogeneous regions. This enables the estimation of statistical distributions of enlarged regional data samples by clustering all extreme events occurred in one or more sites of the region. Recent investigations have highlighted the importance of using past events when estimating extreme events. When historical data are available, they cannot be neglected in order to compute reliable estimations of extreme events. Historical data are collected from different sources and they are identified as data that do not come from time series. In fact, in most cases, no information about other extreme events occurring before and after a historical observation is available. This, and the particular nature of each historical data, do not permit their use in a Regional Analysis. A statistical methodology that enables the use of historical data in a regional context is needed in order to estimate reliable return levels and to reduce their associated uncertainties. In this manuscript, a statistical method called FAB is developed enabling the performance of a Regional Analysis using historical data. This method is formulated for POT (Peaks Over Threshold) data. It is based on the new definition of duration of local and regional observation period (denominated credible duration) and it is able to take into account all the three typical kinds of historical data (exact point, range and lower limit value). In addition, an approach to identify an optimal sampling threshold is defined in this study. This allows to get better estimations through using the optimal extreme data sample in the FAB method.FAB method is a flexible approach that enables the estimation of return levels both in frequentist and Bayesian contexts. An application of this method is carried out for a database of recorded skew surges (systematic data) and for 14 historical skew surges recovered from different sites located on French, British, Belgian and Spanish coasts of the Atlantic Ocean, the English Channel and the North Sea. Frequentist and Bayesian estimations of skew surges are computed for each homogeneous region and for every site. Finally, this manuscript explores the issues surrounding the finding and validation of historical data

Mundialmente, assistimos ao crescente envelhecimento populacional. As projeções para a América Latina indicam que para o ano 2050 uma em cada quatro pessoas será idosa (Caire, 2013). O Chile compartilha esta tendência mundial, fazendo parte dos quatro países mais envelhecidos da América Latina que incluem Argentina, Cuba e Uruguai. Esse contexto impõe desafios aos diferentes países, e a discussão dos aspectos sociais, econômicos, de bem-estar e previdência social é imperativa. A Antropologia discute sobre o envelhecimento e a velhice nas sociedades contemporâneas, problematizando a necessidade de desconstrução de certas abordagens e considerando a heterogeneidade desse processo. A evidência demográfica é uma característica própria desse fenômeno na atualidade, estudá-la envolve não cair em um determinismo demográfico nem biológico, abrindo a discussão sobre as condições sociais e culturais de sua expressão na sociedade contemporânea (Guillemard, 2005). Através da Etnografia da duração (Eckert e Rocha, 2011) a tese dá conta das multiplicidades de estilos de vida e de tempos se passando em uma pequena cidade (Bozon, 1984) mineradora, localizada no Norte do Chile, Inca de Oro. Para compreender o processo de envelhecimento e a vivência da velhice, a tese objetiva o estudo do tempo através das narrativas dos idosos e das idosas do vilarejo, visando a análise mediante o estudo da memória (Halbwachs, 2011). Também discute as questões do corpo, pois é nele que se evidencia a passagem do tempo (Fassin, 2007). Envelhecer e experienciar a velhice em Inca de Oro adquire particularidades próprias que surgem, mantêm-se e enquadram-se sob o abrigo da estrutura social do povoado, estrutura demarcada pela pirquineria - mineração artesanal de exploração de ouro, e pela presença de valores provenientes das sociedades industriais e sociedades indígenas andinas. No entanto, a pesquisa também mostra como, dentro dos limites sociais aceitos e das normatividades de gênero e idade imperantes no povoado, os idosos e as idosas ― interlocutores desta pesquisa ― negociam sua realidade (Velho, 2013), servindo-se de diferentes agenciamentos em sua vida cotidiana (Das apud Ortega, 2008). / At a global level, we are observing the growth of elderly population. By the year 2050, projections for Latin America indicate that one in four people will be an elder (Caire, 2013). Chile shares this global trend, being one of the four countries in Latin America with a high elderly population rate, along with Argentina, Cuba and Uruguay. This context poses new challenges to these countries, as well as makes imperative the need of a formal discussion on social, economic, welfare, and social security topics related to this issue. In this sense, anthropological discussions on old age/aging in contemporary societies, problematize the necessity to deconstruct some of the old school approaches on it and make us reconsider instead, the heterogeneity of this process. Even though, demographic reality is a clear evidence of this phenomenon today, its study requires to avoid falling into quantitative or biological determinism, and to open the discussion on the social and cultural issues related to it in contemporary societies (Guillemard, 2005). By applying the “Ethnography of Duration” approach (Eckert and Rocha, 2011), this dissertation investigates the multiplicity of lifestyles and the perception of time among the elderly in a small mining town, Inca de Oro, located in the northern of Chile. In order to better understand the aging process and the experience of becoming old, the aim of this dissertation is to study time passage through the narratives of the elderly in the village, and also the analysis of memory (Halbwachs, 2011). At the same time, and since the passing of time becomes more evident on the body (Fassin, 2007), a discussion on issues related to it is presented in here. Aging and experiencing old age at Inca de Oro acquires peculiarities that emerge, are maintained, and should be understood in the village’s own context of the social structure. A structure outlined by the activity of pirquineria - artisanal gold mining exploitation- and also by the presence cultural values from indigenous Andean societies. Finally, this investigation shows how, female and male elderly - interlocutors of this research - negotiate their reality (Velho, 2013), as agents through their daily life (Das in Ortega, 2008), within the accepted social limits and norms of gender and age prevailing in the village.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:23:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ana Carolina Victalino de Oliveira.pdf: 1536656 bytes, checksum: 8b97c858416d65edab8570a77cbc251d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-02-09 / The judicial activism by means of a proactive action of the judges is considered to be necessary for the implementation of the constitutional provision of the reasonable duration of the process. The reasonable duration of the process incorporated in the Brazilian legislation since 1992 with the promulgation of the Pact of San Jose in Costa Rica reached a status of fundamental right with the Constitutional Amendment No. 45 as of 2004 (article 5, LXXVIII of the Federal Constitution). Thus, since the 1990s, the legislative changes have become frequent, especially in the Civil Procedure Code, aiming to ensure the claimants the complete, concrete and satisfactory implementation of law within a reasonable period. In addition to the judicial assistance within a reasonable time, the judicial protection must be effective and not limited to the statement of the law. It is in this context that it is proposed that the judge act in a proactive way in conducting the proceeding, acting as a manager. In this sense, both the constitutional principles and the procedure principles that guide the activity of the judge and the proceeding must be interpreted from the standpoint of the effectiveness of the duration of the proceeding within a reasonable period. Therefore, this research aims to study the action of the judge towards the implementation of the constitutional provision of the reasonable duration of the process, analyzing not only the aspects related to the topic but also indicating certain actions that are expected from the judges in order to observe the constitutional purpose in question. However, this is not a final word on the subject, but just certain ideas to achieve a process with a reasonable duration / ativismo judicial, por meio da atuação proativa dos magistrados, apresenta-se necessário para a concretização da cláusula constitucional da duração razoável do processo. A duração razoável do processo incorporada no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro desde 1992 com a promulgação do Pacto San José da Costa Rica alcançou status de direito fundamental com a Emenda Constitucional nº45 de 2004 (art.5º LXXVIII da Constituição Federal). Assim, desde a década de 1990, são frequentes as alterações legislativas, especialmente no Código de Processo Civil, com o objetivo de assegurar ao jurisdicionado a realização completa, concreta e satisfatória do direito, em prazo razoável. Além da prestação jurisdicional em um prazo razoável, a tutela jurisdicional deve ser efetiva, não podendo se limitar apenas à declaração do direito. É neste contexto que se propõe que o julgador atue de forma proativa na condução do processo, agindo como um gestor. Nesse sentido, tanto os princípios constitucionais quanto os princípios processuais que norteiam a atividade do juiz e o processo precisam ser interpretados sob o aspecto da efetividade do processo em prazo razoável. Desse modo, esta pesquisa objetiva estudar a atuação do juiz em prol da concretização da cláusula constitucional da duração razoável do processo, analisando não apenas os institutos relacionados ao tema, mas também, indicando algumas ações esperadas dos magistrados para que a finalidade constitucional em questão seja respeitada. Não se trata, porém, de uma palavra final sobre o tema, mas apenas de algumas ideias para se alcançar um processo com duração razoável de tramitação

La caractérisation spectrale détaillée des lasers XUV générés dans des plasmas est un enjeu important des projets actuels de développement qui visent à augmenter la puissance crête de ces sources. En effet les propriétés spectrales de ces lasers conditionnent d'autres propriétés importantes, telle que la durée minimum accessible (limite de Fourier). La plus courte durée actuellement démontrée expérimentalement est de 1 picoseconde. La technique d'injection d'un plasma de laser XUV avec une impulsion femtoseconde de rayonnement harmonique d'ordre élevé offre des perspectives très prometteuses pour réduire la durée d'impulsion jusqu'à quelques 100 femtosecondes, pourvu que l'on sache maintenir une bande spectrale de gain suffisamment large.Les lasers XUV pompés par excitation collisionnelle dans des ions néonoïdes et nickeloïdes ont été développés dans des plasmas chauds créés aussi bien par décharge électrique rapide que par différents types de lasers de puissance. On a ainsi accès à une large variété de sources lasers XUV, qui diffèrent par les caractéristiques du faisceau émis, mais aussi par les paramètres du plasma (densité, température) dans la zone de gain. On peut donc s'attendre à des propriétés spectrales différentes. Le but du travail que nous présentons est d'étudier les propriétés spectrales des différents types de lasers XUV collisionnels existants, et d'évaluer leur capacité à amplifier des impulsions de durée inférieure à 1 picoseconde, dans un mode injecté.La caractérisation spectrale des lasers XUV est expérimentalement difficile parce que la résolution spectrale nécessaire (∆λ/λ ~10-5) n'est pas accessible avec les meilleurs spectromètres actuels. Dans notre étude, nous avons atteint cette résolution en mesurant la cohérence temporelle de la source à l'aide d'un interféromètre à division de front d'onde, spécifiquement conçu pour ces mesures, à partir desquelles largeur spectrale peut être déduite.Nous avons caractérisé trois types de lasers XUV collisionnels, développés dans trois laboratoires différents: pompage transitoire dans le molybdène nickeloïde, pompage par décharge électrique dans l'argon néonoïde et pompage quasi-stationnaire dans le zinc néonoïde. Dans chaque cas la cohérence temporelle a été mesurée précisément. De plus nous avons étudié l'effet de la saturation de l'amplification et (pour le Ni-like Mo) l'influence du mode injecté. Nous avons également étudié le comportement temporel du laser transitoire Ni-like Mo à l'aide d'une caméra streak X ultra-rapide. Nos mesures spectrales sont comparées à des résultats de simulations numériques prenant en compte les différents mécanismes d'élargissement ainsi que les effets de transfert radiatif. Nous avons étudié l'évolution du profil spectral avec l'amplification et la saturation, et nous avons évalué les limites de Fourier correspondantes.Le temps de cohérence le plus court (ie la largeur spectrale la plus grande) est mesuré pour le laser XUV quasi-stationnaire, qui correspond au plasma qui a la plus forte densité et la plus forte température ionique. / Improving the knowledge of the spectral and temporal properties of plasma-based XUV lasers is an important issue for the ongoing development of these sources towards significantly higher peak power. The spectral properties of the XUV laser line actually control several physical quantities that are important for applications, such as the minimum duration that can be achieved (Fourier-transform limit). The shortest duration experimentally achieved to-date is ~1 picosecond. The demonstrated technique of seeding XUV laser plasmas with a coherent femtosecond pulse of high-order harmonic radiation opens new and promising prospects to reduce the duration to a few 100 fs, provided that the gain bandwidth can be kept large enough.XUV lasers pumped by collisional excitation of Ni-like and Ne-like ions have been developed worldwide in hot plasmas created either by fast electrical discharge, or by various types of high-power lasers. This leads to a variety of XUV laser sources with distinct output properties, but also markedly different plasma parameters (density, temperature) in the amplification zone. Hence different spectral properties are expected. The purpose of our work was then to investigate the spectral behaviour of the different types of existing collisional excitation XUV lasers, and to evaluate their potential to support amplification of pulses with duration below 1 ps in a seeded mode.The spectral characterization of plasma-based XUV lasers is challenging because the extremely narrow bandwidth (typically ∆λ/λ ~10-5) lies beyond the resolution limit of existing spectrometers in this spectral range. In our work the narrow linewidth was resolved using a wavefront-division interferometer specifically designed to measure temporal coherence, from which the spectral linewidth is inferred. We have characterized three types of collisional XUV lasers, developed in three different laboratories: transient pumping in Ni-like Mo, capillary discharge pumping in Ne-like Ar and quasi-steady state pumping in Ne-like Zn. Besides the accurate measurement of the temporal coherence of the laser in each case, we have studied the spectral behaviour when the laser is operated in the saturation regime and (in Ni-like Mo) when it is seeded with high-order harmonic radiation. We have also investigated the temporal behaviour of the Ni-like Mo transient XUV laser, using an ultrafast X-ray streak camera. Our linewidth measurements are compared with detailed numerical calculations including relevant broadening mechanisms as well as radiative transfer effects. The evolution of the spectral profile with amplification and saturation was studied for different plasma parameters, and corresponding Fourier-transform limit duration were evaluated.The shortest temporal coherence (ie the largest bandwidth) is measured for the quasi-steady state pumping XUV laser, which operates at the highest density and ionic temperature.

La présente étude se donne pour but d'analyser l’œuvre romanesque de Sylvie Germain par le biais du concept d'attente. Notre intérêt a été suscité par l'articulation interne des premiers livres, tributaire de la subtile mise en place d'un réseau proleptique qui est symptomatique non seulement de l'instauration d'un pacte, à la suite duquel le lecteur esquisse son horizon d'attente, mais également d'un effort que l'auteur déploie –consciemment ou non – afin de garder une bonne emprise sur le récit. Si l'écrivain ne développe pas de théorie autour de l'attente et n'en fait pas le pivot de son écriture, les récits abondent en situations qui sont sous-tendues par elle. Le titre de la thèse rend compte des deux niveaux auxquels nous avons interrogé la production romanesque de Sylvie Germain, à savoir textuel et diégétique. Le tout s'organise à partir d'une structure ternaire dont le point de départ est l'ébauche d'une poétique de l'attente reposant principalement sur des avant-textes, sur un appareil paratextuel très dense et sur l'emploi d'anticipations par infusion de détails qui créent un effet d'échos et de correspondances par rapport au développement diégétique. La deuxième partie de notre analyse interroge les multiples manières dont l'attente est vécue par les personnages, psychiquement aussi bien que physiologiquement. Quelle que soit sa forme, l'attente reste une expérience temporelle. La dernière partie de notre étude esquisse un panorama des perceptions du temps à travers cette expérience vécue. Au terme de notre travail, nous espérons avoir réussi un exercice de synthèse à partir d'un concept qui échappe aux règles, ainsi qu'une incursion dans le champ de la temporalité peu abordé par rapport à cette œuvre. / The present study aims to analyze Sylvie Germain’s works of fiction through the concept of ‘waiting’. Our interest was aroused by the internal articulation of her first novels. Its dependence on a proleptic network is symptomatic not only of the establishment of a pact that constantly confronts the reader with new expectations, but also of the author’s effort – conscious or not – to keep a good grip on the story. Despite the fact that the writer does not develop a theory around the notion of ‘waiting’ or make it the core of her writing, contexts built around it are plentiful in the narrative. The title of the dissertation anticipates our double perspective on Sylvie Germain’s novels, i.e.textual and diegetic. The whole is organized around a ternary structure. The first part focuses on establishing a poetics of waiting based on an abundance of pre-texts, on the highly dense paratextual apparatus, as well as on the use of anticipation by an infusion of details, which creates an echo effect against the diegesis. The second part of our analysis questions the multiple manners in which the characters live in waiting, psychologically as well as physiologically. Whatever its form, waiting remains atemporal experience. The last part offers a panorama of the time perceptions it engenders. Upon reaching the end of our research, we hope to have offered a synthesis around a concept that constantly escapes the rules, as well as to have approached time related aspects rarely discussed so far in relation to Sylvie Germain’s fiction.

Cette thèse se propose de comprendre la formation et le rôle du concept de causalité dans la philosophie d'Henri Bergson (1859-1941 ), notamment au cours de la période allant de 1889 à 1907. La première partie de ce travail porte sur la redéfinition du concept de causalité dans l'Essai sur les données immédiates de la conscience ( 1889). Dans cet ouvrage, pour que la causalité en général devienne une "causalité psychologique", Bergson interroge l'importance du concept de causalité dans la détermination de l'expérience interne du temps. Il s'agit pour nous de mettre au jour la manière dont ce changement s'opère sur des bases philosophiques fermes. Dans la deuxième partie, nous examinons comment Bergson, quittant la voie de la théorie de la connaissance, s'oriente vers une ontologie de la mémoire fondée sur des bases physiologiques hésitantes, où l'idée du corps occupe une place particulière. Nous nous pencherons dans cette partie sur les détails de cette causalité conçue comme un "sentiment de l'effort''. La troisième et dernière partie de cette thèse présente une réflexion d'ensemble sur les points de vue susmentionnés. On y met en relief l'importance des deux causalités bergsoniennes à travers l'analyse d'un cours inédit de Georges Canguilhem. La manière dont ce dernier valorise la problématique de la causalité dans la philosophie de Bergson est précisément celle que nous adoptons pour tenter de saisir une telle question. Ainsi, la discussion autour des difficultés de l'action matérielle servira de base pour comprendre la spécificité du problème de l'invention technique. / This thesis aims to understand the formation and the role of the causality concept in the philosophy of Henri Bergson (1859-1941 ), notably in the period from 1889 to 1907. Its first part is devoted to exposing the redefinition of causality concept within Time and Consciousness (1889). In this book, a set of statements were assumed by the philosopher so that causality in general becomes a sort of "psychological causality", particularly in order to question the importance of the concept of causality itself in determining the inner experience of time. It is our intent to underscore how this change is operated on a cautious philosophical basis. In the second part of this work, we try to disclose how Bergson abandons the path of the theory of knowledge on behalf of an ontology based on controversial physiological bases, notably regarding the idea of body, which the author presents in Matter and memory (1896). It is from the conceptual unfolding of a causality conceived as the "feeling of effort'' that we are concerned here. Finally, the third part of the thesis presents an overall reflection on the points of view mentioned above. In it, the relevance of the two causalities is highlighted by the analysis of an unpublished course by Georges Canguilhem, in which the problem of causality in Bergson's philosophy is valued according to the way in which we Il)' to understand and reveal it here. Thus, the discussion on the difficulties of material action may represent a prelude to the comprehension of the specificity of the problem of technical invention. / Esta tese tem por objetivo compreender a formação e o papel do conceito de causalidade na filosofia de Henri Bergson (1859-1941), notadamente no período de 1889 a 1907. Sua primeira parte é dedicada à exposição da redefinição do conceito de causalidade dentro do Ensaio sobre os dados imediatos da consciência (1889). Neste livro, para que a causalidade em geral torne-se certa “causalidade psicológica”, uma série de posicionamentos teve de ser tomada pelo filósofo no intuito de questionar a importância de tal conceito na determinação da experiência interna do tempo. É nosso propósito pôr em evidência como essa mudança é operada sobre bases filosóficas seguras. Na segunda parte deste trabalho, procuramos expor como Bergson abandona a via da teoria do conhecimento em prol de uma ontologia fundamentada em bases fisiológicas inseguras, notadamente no que concerne à ideia de corpo que o autor apresenta em Matéria e memória (1896). Do ponto de vista filosófico, sua concepção de subjetividade, definida a partir de um campo de possibilidades, deixa em aberto modo como esse campo transforma-se, em retorno, da possibilidade à realidade. Dito de outro modo, o filósofo garante a especificidade da ação metafísica com precisão filosófica, mas não avança sobre o problema da realização com grau de precisão comparável. Com efeito, em algumas circunstâncias no ínterim de Matéria e memória (1896) e A evolução criadora (1907), Bergson ocupa-se do problema da realização em referência explícita ao próprio problema da causalidade. É dos desdobramentos conceituais desta causalidade concebida como “sentimento do esforço” que nos ocupamos aqui. Por fim, a terceira parte deste trabalho apresenta uma reflexão de conjunto sobre os pontos de vista acima mencionados. Nela, a relevância das duas causalidades é posta em destaque através da análise de um curso inédito de Georges Canguilhem, em que a problemática da causalidade na filosofia de Bergson é valorizada segundo o modo como procuramos entendê-la e expô-la nesta tese. Assim, a discussão das dificuldades da ação material poderá representar um prelúdio à compreensão da especificidade do problema da invenção técnica.

O pensamento de Bergson situa a estética no seio de uma filosofia da natureza, cujo princípio metafísico está longe de qualquer determinismo e do arbítrio do acaso, remetendo-se à irreversibilidade do tempo. Ao invés de disciplina intelectual que busca a natureza da beleza, trata-se, antes, de conduta vital, processo de diferenciação virtual rumo à posição de novidades radicais, podendo ou não desembocar na atividade artística. A arte não é, portanto, um conjunto de atributos atualmente dados ou a prática de habilidades específicas e, sim, um modo de ação que entrelaça os regimes do virtual e do atual sem permitir que a existência se sobreponha à consistência, realizando-se, inclusive, na sua própria abertura. Se o impulso da vida é o que comunica espírito e matéria, inserindo liberdade na necessidade, segue-se que a atividade artística é uma das vias em que desemboca o elã, ao lado dos seres vivos e da expressão mística. A individuação de uma obra implica certos graus de liberdade e níveis de consciência que não se explicam nem pela espécie, nem pelo indivíduo, já que sua contração intuitiva submete a duração do artista a tonalidades não psicológicas e a-subjetivas. Tocado por uma emoção criadora, vai-se realmente do Todo Aberto à colocação de novos mundos. O veículo de ação confunde-se com a própria ação, criatura com criador, de modo que o corpo artístico instaurado é puro transbordamento de vitalidade, consciência de si do tempo. / Bergson's aesthetics lies within a philosophy of nature, whose metaphysical principle is far from any determinism or chance as it refers to the irreversibility of time. Instead of an intellectual discipline that seeks the nature of beauty, it is rather defined by a vital conduct, a process of virtual differentiation towards the position of radical novelties, which may or may not culminate in artistic activity. Therefore, art is not a set of actual attributes or the practice of specific skills; its, on the other hand, a mode of action that interweaves the regimes of the virtual and the actual without allowing its existence to overlap its consistency. Its realization indeed relies in its own opening. If the impulse of life is what communicates spirit and matter, by inserting liberty into necessity, it follows that artistic activity is one of the ways in which the élan flows, alongside living beings and mystical expression. The individuation of a piece involves certain degrees of freedom and levels of consciousness that cannot be explained neither by the species nor by the individual because its intuitive contraction takes the duration of the artist to tones of vitality that are not psychological or subjective. Touched by a creative emotion, one goes from the perspective of the Open Whole to the placement of new worlds. The vehicle of action then merges with the action itself, creature with creator, so that the artistic body is pure overflowing vitality, when time regains consciousness of itself.

Le temps et la mémoire chez la personne « cérébro-lésée » Le temps et la mémoire participent au fondement de notre humanité. Les personnes atteintes de pathologies neurologiques interrogent de façon particulière les liens que les hommes tissent avec leur temporalité et leur mémoire. Au cours de ce travail, nous avons tenté de dégager ce qui était spécifique du temps vécu et de l’atteinte mémorielle dans la clinique neurologique. Temps disloqué des patients « déments », temps déchiré des patients atteints d’un accident vasculaire, ces deux modalités temporelles seront étudiées sous l’angle de l’éprouvé temporel. Nous avons également tenté de réfléchir autour des questions de la durée et du changement. Que devient l’identité de ces personnes touchées au coeur de leur être ? En précisant ce qui anime le rapport dialectique qui s’articule entre le temps et la mémoire, et qui est l’oeuvre de l’esprit, nous évoquons ce qui atteste de la continuité de la vie psychique, au-delà de l’apparaître et des potentialités « rationnelles ». L’accompagnement de ces patients requiert une présence, un don du temps / Time and memory are at the root for our humanity. People suffering from neurological illnesses greatly question the links men have with their temporality and their memory. In this essay, I have tried to bring out what is specific to time that has been experienced and to the effects of memory illnesses in the neurological clinic. I have studied two temporal modalities, the ‘demented” patient ‘s dislocated time, the patient who has suffered a stroke’s ripped time, as the time-proven person. I have also tried to consider questions of time, duration and change. What becomes the identity of those people who have suffered in their being? I have mentioned what testifies the continuity of the psychic life, beyond seemingness and “rational” potentialities by clarifying what prompts the dialectic relationship between time and memory. Being with those patients requires a presence, a gift of time