Os fatores idade e sexo modificam a experiência dolorosa em animais e seres humanos. Os efeitos dos hormônios gonadais têm sido estudados em diversos modelos experimentais de dor, no entanto, o efeito do envelhecimento na percepção à dor carece de mais investigação. O efeito do envelhecimento na dor neuropática ainda não está bem estabelecido. Neste estudo se procurou avaliar possíveis variações na percepção da dor da hiperalgesia mecânica, em função da idade, presença e ausência de hormônios gonadais e sexo em ratos Wistar machos e fêmeas, jovens e idosos no modelo de dor neuropática, ligadura da quinta raiz lombar. Os animais foram divididos nos seguintes grupos: ratos jovens orquiectomizados e não-orquiectomizados, ratos idosos orquiectomizados e não-orquiectomizados, ratas jovens ooforectomizadas com ou sem reposição de 17beta-estradiol e ratas idosas. Foi testado o limiar de retirada da pata após estímulo mecânico antes da ligadura e no 7º, 14º, 21º e 28o dias após a ligadura. Os resultados mostraram que todos os animais apresentaram comportamento hiperalgésico após ligadura da quinta raiz lombar durante os 28 dias de observação. A hiperalgesia ocorreu independentemente do sexo do animal, da presença ou ausência de hormônios gonadais ou idade. Não houve diferença entre ratos jovens e idosos não-orquiectomizados (p = 0,420), entre ratos jovens e idosos orquiectomizados (p = 0,560). Entre os ratos idosos com e sem orquiectomia houve diferença no 14º (p = 0,038) e 28º (p = 0,002) dias. Ratas jovens ooforectomizadas sem reposição de 17beta-estradiol apresentaram menor hiperalgesia que ratas ooforectomizadas com reposição durante todo o período (p = 0,001). Não houve diferença entre ratos idosos orquiectomizados e ratas idosas (p = 0,09). Ratos jovens não-orquiectomizados apresentaram menor hiperalgesia mecânica que ratas jovens ooforectomizadas com reposição de 17beta-estradiol (p = 0,001), o mesmo não ocorreu entre machos e fêmeas jovens gonadectomizados sem reposição hormonal (p = 0,511). Ratas jovens ooforectomizadas sem reposição de 17beta-estradiol e ratas idosas mostraram diferença apenas no 7º dia (p = 0,002). Os resultados permitiram concluir que a reposição de 17beta-estradiol aumentou a hiperalgesia mecânica aos estímulos mecânicos após ligadura da quinta raiz lombar em ratas jovens ooforectomizadas, a hiperalgesia mecânica não diferiu entre os sexos em ratos jovens machos e fêmeas, a presença da gônada masculina diminuiu a hiperalgesia mecânica em ratos idosos e que houve diminuição da hiperalgesia mecânica em ratas idosas / Age and sex modify the pain experience in animals and humans. The effects of gonadal hormones have been studied in various experimental pain models, however, the effect of aging on pain perception needs further investigation. The effect of aging on neuropathic pain is not well established. In this study, we sought to determine how aging and gonadal hormones affect mechanical hyperalgesia using spinal nerve ligation as a neuropathic pain model in aged and young male and female Wistar rats. Animals were divided into seven groups: aged female, ovariectomized young females with 17beta-estradiol replacement, ovariectomized young females without 17beta-estradiol replacement, orchiectomized and non-orchiectomized aged and young males. Rats were tested for mechanical hyperalgesia in the plantar surface of the left hindpaw before nerve ligation and on days 7, 14, 21 and 28 after nerve ligation. All animals of all groups showed mechanical hyperalgesic behavior after spinal nerve ligation during entire period of 28 days. Hyperalgesia was independent of the sex of the animal, the presence or absence of gonadal hormones or age. There was no difference between non-orchiectomized aged and young males (p = 0.420), and between orchiectomized aged and young males (p = 0.560). There was difference between aged male rats with and without orchiectomy in days 14 (p = 0.038) and 28 (p = 0.002). Young ovariectomized female rats without 17beta-estradiol replacement had less hyperalgesia than young ovariectomized female rats with replacement (p = 0.001). There was no difference between aged orchiectomized male rats and old female rats (p = 0.09). Young non-orchiectomized male rats showed less mechanical hyperalgesia than young ovariectomized female rats with 17beta-estradiol replacement (p = 0.001), that did not occur between young orchiectomized males rats and young ovariectomized females rats without 17beta-estradiol replacement (p = 0.51). Young ovariectomized female rats without 17beta-estradiol replacement and old female rats showed differences only on day 7 (p = 0.002). These data suggest that estradiol presented a pronociceptive effect in young female rats in mechanical hyperalgesia in the neuropathic pain model, spinal nerve ligation, withdrawal threshold did not differ between sex, the presence of male gonadal hormones reduces mechanical hyperalgesia in old male rats and there is reduced mechanical hyperalgesia in aged female rats

This diploma thesis deals with the optimalization of synthesis of gold nanoparticles and their surface modification allowing their use as contrast agents for in vivo imaging by CT. Gold nanoparticles were prepared by the Turkevich method and characterized by TEM, DLS, MADLS and UV -Vis. Their surface was functionalized with polyethylene glycol containing a thiol group forming a bond with the Au atoms in the surface of gold nanoparticles. The terminal end of the polymer was methylated or containing an aminooxy group forming an orthogonal bond with hyaluronic acid using click-chemistry. The eligibility for in vivo application of the prepared nanoparticles was verified with stability and cytotoxicity tests. The nanoparticles modified by methylated polyethyleneglycol were injected intravenously into a mouse and their application potential as contrast agents were verified by CT.

Introduction. L’encéphalopathie hépatique (HE) est une complication commune mais sévère des insuffisances hépatiques. La physiopathologie de l’HE provient essentiellement de l’ammoniac dérivé du métabolisme des bactéries intestinales. Le traitement standard pour les patients qui subissent des épisodes manifestes d’HE est le lactulose mais son observance est faible du fait d’effets secondaires inconfortables. La rifaximine est un candidat potentiel mais il n’y a pas de données issues d’essais cliniques suffisamment robustes pour supporter sa seule utilisation. Les traitements anti-fibrotiques sont une autre piste de traitement dans le sens où s’il est possible de prévenir l’avancement de la défaillance hépatique il est alors possible de diminuer la probabilité et la sévérité des épisodes. Deux études indépendantes ont été réalisées dans un modèle de ligature de la voie biliaire, la première étude pour évaluer l’efficacité de traitements thérapeutiques de l’HE (lactulose et rifaximine) utilisés seuls ou en combinaison pour réduire le taux d’ammoniac et améliorer le statut de l’HE; et la seconde étude, pour évaluer des traitements utilisés individuellement pour prévenir l’établissement de la fibrose (acide obéticholique, rapamycine, pirfénidone, acide ursodésoxycholique). Matériel et méthodes. Les deux projets utilisent un modèle murin de ligature de la voie biliaire. Pour l’évaluation de la rifaximine, trois semaines après la chirurgie, les animaux sont séparés en cinq groupes en fonction du traitement reçu quotidiennement et du modèle : SHAM-VEH, pour les animaux ayant subi un simulacre de chirurgie de ligature de la voie biliaire (SHAM) et traité par le véhicule (VEH); BDL-VEH, pour les animaux ayant subi la chirurgie de ligature de la voie biliaire et traité par le véhicule; BDL-RIF, pour les animaux traités par la rifaximine (RIF); BDL-LAC, pour les animaux traités par le lactulose (LAC); BDL-LAC+RIF, pour les animaux traités par le lactulose et la rifaximin (LAC+RIF). Pour l’évaluation des composés anti-fibrotiques, une semaine après la chirurgie, les animaux sont séparés en six groupes en fonction du traitement reçu quotidiennement et du modèle : SHAM-VEH; BDL-VEH; BDL-OCA pour les animaux traités par l’obéticholique acide (OCA); BDL-RPM, pour les animaux traités par la rapamycine (RPM); BDL-UDCA, pour les animaux traités par l’acide ursodésoxycholique (UDCA); BDL-PFN pour les animaux traités par la pirfenidone (PFN). Les animaux sont alors évalués au cours du modèle pour leur survie, leur consommation de nourriture et leur poids. Les paramètres biochimiques de la fonction hépatiques sont évalués en fin de modèle. Plus particulièrement, le projet sur les composés anti-fibrotiques comprend une analyse plus approfondie de la fibrose par histologie avec établissement du score MÉTAVIR et par mesure du contenu hépatique en hydroxyproline. Le projet rifaximine comprend des analyses comportementales pour évaluer l’HE mais également une mesure de l’œdème cérébral. Résultats. Pour le projet rifaximine, aucun des deux composés testés (i.e. rifaximin et lactulose) seuls ou combinaison n’ont pas eu d’effets bénéfiques globaux en termes de survie, de croissance, de consommation de nourriture, de tests comportementaux, d’œdème cérébral, de paramètres biochimiques incluant l’ammoniac. Aucun des traitements pris séparément ou en combinaison n’a montré d’efficacité pour le traitement de l’HE. Pour le projet des composés anti-fibrotiques, certains composés ont entrainé une mortalité plus élevée. Aucune différence entre les traitements ne fut observée en termes de croissance, de consommation de nourriture, de paramètres biochimiques, d’histologie et de contenu en hydroxyproline. Conclusions. Globalement, l’étude sur la rifaximine ne présente pas de résultats suffisamment concluants pour recommander l’utilisation de la rifaximine en remplacement ou en concomitance avec le lactulose. L’étude sur les composés anti-fibrotiques ne permet pas de mettre en évidence un composé capable de limiter la progression de la fibrose. / Introduction. Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a major but common complication of liver failures diseases. The physiopathology of HE mainly involves intestinal bacteria metabolism derived ammonia. The golden standard for patients who experience overt episodes of HE is lactulose but its observance is poor due to uncomfortable side effects. On the other hand, Rifaximin is a potent candidate but there is a lack of relevant data from clinical trials to support its sole use. Antifibrotic drugs are another category of treatment that can be useful in the setting of HE since it can prevent the onset of cirrhosis and thus of the liver failure, this can decrease the appearance and severity of the episodes. The aim of this study is to evaluate in a murine model of bile duct ligation the efficiency of therapeutic treatments (lactulose and rifaximin) alone or in combination to decrease blood ammonia and ameliorate HE status; and of prophylactic treatments (obeticholic acid, rapamycin, pirfenidone, ursodeoxycholic acid) individually to prevent the onset of fibrosis. Materials and methods. The two projects used a murine model of bile duct ligation. For the evaluation of the efficiency of rifaximin, three weeks after surgery, the animals were sorted into five groups according to the treatment they received daily and according to the model : SHAM-VEH, for animals that underwent a mock surgery (SHAM) and were treated with vehicle (VEH); BDL-VEH, for animals that underwent a bile duct ligation surgery (BDL) and were treated with vehicle; BDL-RIF, for animals that were treated with rifaximin (RIF); BDLLAC, for animals that were treated with lactulose (LAC); BDL-LAC+RIF for animals that were treated with lactulose and rifaximin (LAC+RIF);. For the evaluation of the effect of antifibrotic drugs, one week after surgery, the animals were sorted into six groups according to the treatment they received daily and according to the model : SHAM-VEH, BDL-VEH, BDL-OCA for animals that were treated with obeticholic acid (OCA); BDL-RPM, for animals that were treated with rapamycine (RPM); BDL-UDCA, for animals that were treated with ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA); BDL-PFN, for animals that were treated with pirfenidone (PFN). All animals were evaluated during the model for survival, food consumption and growth. The biological parameters of the liver function were evaluated at the end of the model. More specifically, this project includes a deeper analysis on fibrosis through histological analysis with establishment of the METAVIR score and measure of the content on hydroxyproline. The rifaximin project includes behavioural analysis to evaluate the HE status and measurement of cerebral edema. Results. Concerning the rifaximin project, no difference can be established between the treatments in term of survival, growth, food consumption, behavioural tests, cerebral edema, biochemistry parameters including ammonia. No treatment, taken alone or in combination, showed efficacy to treat HE. Concerning the antifibrotic drug study, some compounds have shown an increase in mortality, although no difference can be observed on growth, food consumption, biochemistry parameters, histology or hydroxyproline content. Conclusions. Overall, the study on rifaximin does not present strong and conclusive results on the sole use of rifaximin. According to the study on the antifibrotic drugs, no compounds show evidence of prevention of the onset of the fibrosis.

Such chromosomal rearrangements, which cannot be detected by using of cytogenetic banding of metaphase chromosomes, i.e. chromosomes smaller than 3 - 5 Mb, and therefore modern molecular genetic methods are used to detect them, are called "cryptic rearrangements". Their important role in human pathology is more and more significant. By using of the multiplex ligation-probe dependent amplification method (MLPA) we examined a group of 50 probands with idiopathic mental retardation. A cryptic rearrangement was found at 8 probands (16 %), at 6 of them it was demonstrably causal. Then we examined a group of 40 probands suspected of gene SHOX pathology. A cryptic rearrangement was found at 17 probands (42.5 %) and at 8 of them it was demonstrably causal. Presence of small deletion founded isolated at 7 probands was verified in a population set, but without a positive result. An analysis of mutations was made too.

Esophageal varices are expanded veins of the submucosa that develop in patients with portal hypertension. They develop as collaterals between the portal vein and the superior vena cava. Varices are seen when the HPVG rises >12mmHG and can lead to a life-threatening bleeding episode. Endoscopic band ligation (EBL) is the treatment of choice of acute variceal bleeding. It is also performed for primary and secondary prophylaxis of bleeding from esophageal varices. After EBL, patients are at risk of postinterventional bleeding. Therefore, patients are often hospitalized until endoscopy proves all applied ligation bands have dropped off. At present, there is no standardized algorithm for surveillance of patients after EBL. Furthermore, risk factors for bleeding complications after EBL are poorly evaluated. The available studies mostly investigated patient collectives .after endoscopic sclerotherapy. The aim of this study was to investigate bleeding behaviour after EBL, to make recommendations for in- and out-patient surveillance after EBL and to analyze independent risk factors for bleeding complications after EBL.

Die Detektion von Nukleinsäuren ist eine der am häufigsten verwendeten Methoden zur Erkennung von viralen und bakteriellen Spezies in biologischen Proben. Oligonukleotid-vermittelte Reaktionen (OVR), die die Zielsequenz als Katalysator der chemischen Reaktion zwischen reaktiven Sonden verwenden, bieten gegenüber den enzymatischen Methoden viele Vorteile, wie z.B. Simplizität und Kosteneffizienz. Normalerweise besitzt das Produkt der OVR deutliche fluoreszierende Eigenschaften, die durch Fluoreszenzspektroskopie gemessen werden können. Die Haupteinschränkung solcher Systeme ist die nur moderate Helligkeit von organischen Farbstoffen, die meistens zur Markierung von reaktiven Sonden genutzt werden. Um dieses Problem zu lösen, sind Fluorophore mit höherer Helligkeit erforderlich. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt die Entwicklung einer Methode zur Detektion von RNA durch Templat-vermittelten Transfer des Fluorophors auf den Quantum Dot (QD). Das System besteht aus zwei reaktiven Peptide Nucleic Acid (PNA)-basierten Antisense-Sonden. Die Label Akzeptor PNA (LAPNA) Sonde ist auf dem QD immobilisiert und enthält eine Cysteineinheit am N-terminus. Die Label Donor PNA (LDPNA) Sonde trägt eine Cy5-Einheit, die als Thioester gebunden ist. Durch die benachbarte Hybridisierung der Sonden am RNA-Templat nimmt die effektive Molarität der reaktiven Gruppen zu, und führt somit durch das Prinzip von Native Chemical Ligation zum Transfer des Cy5 auf den QD. Dies resultiert in Förster−Resonanzenergietransfer (FRET) zwischen dem QD und den Cy5-Molekülen, der durch die Löschung der Emission des QDs sowie die Verstärkung der Fluoreszenz des Cy5 beobachtet werden kann. Die Verwendung von sehr hellen QDs als FRET-Donor ermöglicht die Umsetzung von Sonden bei geringen Konzentrationen und ermöglicht die Erkennung von RNA mit Nachweisgrenzen im Bereich von weniger pikomolar. / Detection of nucleic acids is one of the most reliable methods for the identification of bacterial and viral species in biological samples. Oligonucleotide-templated reactions (OTRs) that exploit an RNA or DNA target to catalyze a chemical reaction hold great promise for the development of enzyme-free and low-cost detection schemes. Commonly, these strategies rely on organic dyes and are designed so that the product of OTR exhibits distinct fluorogenic properties. The main constraint of such schemes is the moderate brightness of organic fluorophores, which limits the read-out when the probes are used at low concentrations. To tackle this obstacle, significantly brighter fluorophores are needed. This work describes the development of an RNA detection scheme that relies on target-templated fluorophore transfer onto a semiconductor quantum dot (QD). The approach uses two reactive peptide nucleic acid (PNA) antisense probes. Label acceptor peptide nucleic acid (LAPNA) probe is immobilized on a QD and bears a cysteine at the N-terminus; label donor peptide nucleic acid (LDPNA) probe is equipped with a Cy5 dye, attached as a thioester. The adjacent annealing of these recognition elements following binding to target RNA triggers the transfer of Cy5 onto a QD in a native chemical ligation manner. This leads to a detectable fluorescence signal brought about by FRET from QD to the Cy5. The use of unprecedentedly bright QDs that can act as FRET donors for several Cy5 functionalities allows application of probes at very low concentrations (pM range) and achieves enhanced sensitivity of target-templated RNA detection. The method enabled RNA detection in the low pM range using a conventional microtiter plate reader.

Contexte et objectifs : L'encéphalopathie hépatique (EH) est un trouble neuropsychiatrique, une complication majeure de la maladie hépatique chronique (MHC). L'EH se manifeste par un large éventail de symptômes, allant d'un léger manque d'attention et de troubles de la mémoire à une léthargie sévère et un coma. L'hyperammoniémie est centrale dans la pathogenèse de l'EH puisque l'ammoniac est neurotoxique et que l'ammoniac dérivé du sang traverse facilement la barrière hémato-encéphalique (BHE). Cependant, d'autres facteurs pathogènes sont également impliqués dans l'EH, notamment le stress oxydatif. Au cours de la MHC, le muscle joue un rôle compensatoire essentiel dans l'élimination de l'ammoniac par l'action de l'enzyme glutamine synthétase (GS), qui transforme le glutamate en glutamine. Étant donné que les cellules endothéliales de la BHE sont l'interface entre le sang et le cerveau, il est plausible qu'elles métabolisent l'ammoniac pour protéger le cerveau de la neurotoxicité induite par l'ammoniac. Cependant, cela n'a jamais fait l'objet d'études. Les thérapies de réduction de l'ammoniac sont les traitements courants de l'EH. Cependant, les réponses des patients aux traitements sont hétérogènes, et les différences de sexe pourraient en être la cause. Par conséquent, nos objectifs étaient 1) d'explorer le métabolisme de l'ammoniac dans les cellules endothéliales de la BHE par la présence de GS et 2) d'évaluer l'impact du sexe sur la MHC et ses complications, y compris la sarcopénie et l'EH. Méthodes : Pour le premier objectif, nous avons évalué l'expression et l'activité de la protéine GS in vitro et ex vivo chez des rats naïfs. Nous avons également évalué l'impact de l'ornithine, du glutamate et du α-kétoglutarate sur l'activité de la GS dans les cellules endothéliales de la BHE via la génération de glutamine 5-13C marquée. Pour le deuxième objectif, nous avons évalué l'impact du sexe sur le neurophénotype (anxiété, mémoire, coordination motrice et activité) chez des rats ligaturés des voies biliaires (BDL) (et contrôles respectifs) ainsi que sur le développement d'une EH sévère (léthargie/perte du réflexe de redressement). Nous avons également évalué les marqueurs des lésions hépatiques, l'hyperammoniémie, le stress oxydatif systémique, la masse et la fonction musculaire et la clairance de l'ammoniac musculaire. Résultats : Nous avons trouvé l'activité et l'expression de la GS in vivo et ex vivo dans les cellules endothéliales de la BHE. L'analyse au microscope confocal a montré que la GS dans les cellules endothéliales est moins abondante que dans les astrocytes. L'exposition de cellules endothéliales cultivées à des substrats marqués a révélé que l'ornithine est la plus efficace pour générer de la glutamine. Chez les femmes, la chirurgie BDL a provoqué une MHC (augmentation des enzymes hépatiques circulantes et de la bilirubine) et de l'EH (altération de la coordination motrice et de l'activité nocturne) par rapport aux rats contrôles respectifs. De plus, le degré d'hyperammoniémie et la clairance musculaire de l'ammoniac étaient similaires entre les sexes. Contrairement aux mâles, les rats femelles n'ont pas développé de perte musculaire, d'œdème cérébral et de perte de mémoire à court terme. De plus, les femelles présentaient un stress oxydatif plus faible et étaient complètement protégées contre les EH sévères précipitées par l'ammoniac par rapport aux mâles BDL. Conclusions : Nous concluons que la GS est exprimée dans les cellules endothéliales de la BHE, jouant peut-être un rôle dans l'atténuation ou le retard de l'entrée de l'ammoniac dans le cerveau et que la supplémentation en ornithine améliore l'activité de la GS en fournissant du glutamate pour la détoxification de l'ammoniac. De plus, nous concluons que le sexe a un impact sur les complications des maladies du foie, y compris la sarcopénie et l'EH, le stress oxydatif systémique jouant un rôle vital dans la susceptibilité à l'EH sévère induite par l'ammoniac. / Background and aims: Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is a neuropsychiatric disorder and a major complication of chronic liver disease (CLD). HE manifests with a wide range of symptoms, from mild lack of attention and memory impairments to severe lethargy and coma. Hyperammonemia is central in the pathogenesis of HE since ammonia is neurotoxic, and blood-derived ammonia easily crosses the blood-brain barrier (BBB). However, other pathogenic factors are also implicated in HE, including oxidative stress. During CLD, muscle plays an essential compensatory role in removing ammonia by the action of the enzyme glutamine synthetase (GS), which amidates glutamate into glutamine. Since the endothelial cells of the BBB are the interface between the blood and the brain, it is plausible that they metabolize ammonia to protect the brain from ammonia-induced neurotoxicity. However, this has never been investigated. Ammonia lowering therapies are the mainstream treatments for HE. However, patients' response to treatments are heterogeneous, and sex differences might be the cause. Therefore, our aims were 1) To explore ammonia metabolism in BBB’s endothelial cells through the presence of GS and 2) to assess the impact of sex on CLD and its complications, including sarcopenia and HE. Methods: For the first aim, we assessed GS protein expression and activity in vitro and ex vivo in naïve rats. We also evaluated the impact of ornithine, glutamate, and α-ketoglutarate on GS activity in endothelial cells of the BBB via the generation of labeled 5-13C glutamine. For the second aim, we assessed the impact of sex on the neurophenotype (anxiety, memory, motor coordination, and activity) in bile-duct ligated (BDL) rats (and respective SHAMs) as well as on the development of an ammonia-precipitated severe HE (lethargy/loss of righting reflex). We also assessed liver injury markers, hyperammonemia, systemic oxidative stress, muscle mass and function, and muscle ammonia clearance. Results: We found GS activity and expression in vivo and ex vivo in endothelial BBB cells. The confocal microscope analysis showed that GS in endothelial cells is less abundant than astrocytes. Exposing cultured endothelial cells to labeled substrates revealed that ornithine is the most efficient in generating glutamine. In females, BDL surgery caused CLD (increased hepatic enzymes and bilirubin) and HE (impaired motor coordination and night activity) vs. respective SHAMs. Furthermore, the degree of hyperammonemia and muscle ammonia clearance was similar between sexes. Contrary to males, female rats did not develop muscle loss, brain edema, and short-term memory loss. In addition, females had lower oxidative stress and were completely protected against ammonia-precipitated severe HE compared to male BDLs. Conclusions: We conclude that GS is expressed in endothelial cells of the BBB, possibly playing a role in attenuating or delaying ammonia entry into the brain and, ornithine supplementation enhances GS activity by providing glutamate for ammonia detoxification. In addition, we conclude that sex impacts the complications of liver disease, including sarcopenia and HE, with systemic oxidative stress playing a vital role in the susceptibility to ammonia-induced overt HE.

In dieser Arbeit wurde eine neue Templat-gesteuerte fluorogene Peptidverknüpfung vorgestellt. Speziell modifizierte Peptidfragmente wurden durch die Bindung an ein Templatmolekül zu einer chemischen Reaktion befähigt, wodurch ein Fluoreszenzsignal erzeugt werden konnte. Das erlaubte eine Reaktionskontrolle in Echtzeit. Die fluorogene Peptidverknüpfung konnte erfolgreich mit einem Coiled-coil Peptid-Model etabliert werden. Dabei wurden Peptidthioester derart modifiziert, dass in räumlicher Nähe zur Thioestergruppe ein Fluorophor platziert wurde und die acetylierte Mercaptogruppe als Fluoreszenzlöscher agierte. Die modifizierten Thioester können nach dem Reaktionsmechanismus der nativen chemischen Peptidverknüpfung (NCL) unter der Bildung einer Amidbindung mit N-terminalen Cysteinylpeptiden reagieren. Die fluoreszenzlöschende Mercaptogruppe verlässt dabei den Peptidthioester als Nukleofug, wodurch ein fluoreszierendes Reaktionsprodukt entsteht. Die Templat-gesteuerte Durchführung dieser fluorogenen nativen chemischen Peptidverknüpfung (fNCL) erlaubte die Reaktionsdurchführung bei sehr geringen Peptidkonzentrationen. Die Synthese der benötigten fluorogenen Thioester gelang zum einem durch die Anwendung der selbstreinigenden Thioestersynthese mit einer Tandem-Entschützungs-Kupplungs-Strategie und zum Anderen mit Hilfe eines synthetisierten fluorogenen Azid-Thioesterbausteins, welches mit einem Alkin-modifizierten Peptid zur Reaktion gebracht wurde. Neben Coiled-coil Peptiden, wurden auch doppelsträngige DNA und Antikörper als Template für die fNCL eingesetzt. Die fNCL konnte zur Durchführung eines Abstandsscreenings angewendet werden. Es wurde eine Abhängigkeit zwischen der Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit und dem Abstand der Bindungsstellen im Templat für zwei reaktive Peptidbindungspartner gezeigt. Durch diese Untersuchung konnte die räumliche Abstandsgrenze zwischen zwei Bindungsstellen in einem Templatmolekül bestimmt werden, die keinen Templat-Effekt mehr beobachten lässt. / In this thesis a new template-controlled fluorogenic peptide linkage was presented. Specially modified peptide fragments were enabled to undergo a chemical reaction by binding to a template molecule, which resulted in a fluorescent signal. This allowed a reaction control in real time. The fluorogenic peptide linkage was successfully established using a coiled coil peptide model. Peptide thioesters were modified in such a way that a fluorophore was placed in close proximity to the thioester group and the acetylated mercapto group acted as fluorescence quencher. These modified thioesters can react with N-terminal cysteinyl peptides according to the reaction mechanism of the native chemical ligation (NCL) under the formation of an petide bond. The fluorescence-quenching mercapto group leaves the peptide thioester as a leaving group, resulting in a fluorescent reaction product. Template-controlled execution of this fluorogenic native chemical ligation (fNCL) allowed the reaction to be performed at very low peptide concentrations. The synthesis of the required fluorogenic thioesters was achieved on the one hand by applying a self-purifying thioester synthesis with a tandem-protective coupling strategy and on the other hand by using a synthesized fluorogenic azide thioester building block which was reacted with an alkine-modified peptide. In addition to the coiled coil peptides, double-stranded DNA and antibodies were used as templates for fNCL. Finally, the fNCL could be used to perform a distance screening. A dependence between the reaction rate and the distance between the binding sites in the template for two reactive peptide binding partners was shown. By this investigation a distance between two binding sites in a template molecule could be determined, which does not show a template effect anymore.

No description available.

In bacteria, protein synthesis can occur tightly coupled to transcription. In eukaryotes, it is believed that translation occurs solely in the cytoplasm; I test whether some occurs in nuclei and find: (1) L-azidohomoalanine (Aha) – a methionine analogue (detected by microscopy after attaching a fluorescent tag using ‘click’ chemistry) – is incorporated within 5 s into nuclei in a process sensitive to the translation inhibitor, anisomycin. (2) Puromycin – another inhibitor that end-labels nascent peptides (detected by immuno-fluorescence) – is similarly incorporated in a manner sensitive to a transcriptional inhibitor. (3) CD2 – a non-nuclear protein – is found in nuclei close to the nascent RNA that encodes it (detected by combining indirect immuno-labelling with RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization using intronic probes); faulty (nascent) RNA is destroyed by a quality-control mechanism sensitive to translational inhibitors. I conclude that substantial translation occurs in the nucleus, with some being closely coupled to transcription and the associated proof-reading. Moreover, most peptides made in both the nucleus and cytoplasm are degraded soon after they are made with half-lives of about one minute. I also collaborated on two additional projects: the purification of mega-complexes (transcription ‘factories’) containing RNA polymerases I, II, or III (I used immuno-fluorescence to confirm that each contained the expected constituents), and the demonstration that some ‘factories’ specialize in transcribing genes responding to tumour necrosis factor α – a cytokine that signals through NFκB (I used RNA fluorescence in situ hybridization coupled with immuno-labelling to show active NFκB is found in factories transcribing responsive genes).