Hugo Loetscher (1929-2009) a joué un rôle important dans la littérature suisse alémanique du 20e siècle. On lui accole souvent l’étiquette de « cosmopolite suisse », tant il a réussi le pari de s’intéresser au vaste monde sans jamais renier son milieu et son pays d’origine. L’essai dont il est question ici, äs tischört und plutschins. Über das Unreine in der Sprache, eine helvetische Situierung, adopte une perspective suisse pour proposer une réflexion sur le lien entre langue, littérature et nation, sur la place des langues minoritaires dans le monde globalisé et sur l’idéal – critiquable selon Loetscher – de « pureté » linguistique. Ce mémoire, en plus de présenter une traduction de l’essai de Loetscher, qui était jusqu’à ce jour inédit en français, réfléchit à l’actualité de ce texte dans le contexte québécois et au processus de traduction d’un auteur suisse germanophone pour un public francophone diversifié, en s’appuyant sur les théories de la stylistique comparée d’Alfred Malblanc et du skopos de Katharina Reiß et Hans J. Vermeer. Notre étude se penche d’une part sur le rôle d’éléments péritextuels comme les notes de bas de page qui, dans le processus d’adaptation, permettent au translatum, c’est-à-dire au résultat de l’acte de traduction, au texte cible, de respecter son objectif de départ, son skopos. D’autre part, l’analyse aborde la question d’une possible utilisation de régionalismes (québécois ou suisses) dans un translatum en français standard dont le texte source porte lui-même sur la diversité linguistique et les variantes régionales et dialectales. / Hugo Loetscher (1929-2009) has played an important role in Swiss-German literature of the 20th century. He is often described as a “Swiss cosmopolitan” because of the way he managed to stay interested in what was happening in the whole wide world without ever disowning his social background and his country of origin. This thesis examines an essay, äs tischört und plutschins. Über das Unreine in der Sprache, eine helvetische Situierung, which adopts a Swiss perspective to deal with the relationship between language, literature and nation – the place of minority languages in the globalized world and on the ideal of linguistic “purity” deemed questionable by Loetscher Besides proposing a translation of Loetscher’s essay still unpublished in French, this thesis explores the pertinence of the aforementioned text in the current context in Québec and the translation process of a Swiss German author’s text for a diverse francophone public based on the theories of Alfred Malblanc (comparative stylistics), Katharina Reiß and Hans J. Vermeer (skopos theory). The study addresses on the one hand the role of peritextual elements, such as footnotes, for the adaptation process, allowing the translatum, the target text as a result of the translation act, to meet its initial goal; its skopos. On the other hand, the study reflects on the use of (québécois or Swiss) regionalisms in a translatum that is in standard French, how they relate to the source text’s focus on linguistic diversity, and regional and dialectal variations. / Hugo Loetscher (1929-2009) spielte eine wichtige Rolle in der deutschschweizerischen Literatur des 20. Jh. Oft wird er als „kosmopolitischer Schweizer“ beschrieben, da es ihm so gut gelungen ist, sich für die weite Welt zu interessieren, ohne seine Heimat zu verleugnen. Das in dieser Arbeit behandelte Essay – äs tischört und plutschins. Über das Unreine in der Sprache, eine helvetische Situierung – bietet eine schweizerische Perspektive auf die Beziehung zwischen Sprache, Literatur und Nation, die Stellung von Minderheitensprachen in der globalisierten Welt und das von Loetscher kritisierte Ideal einer „reinen“ Sprache an. Nach einer Übersetzung des im Französischen bisher unveröffentlichten Essays fokussiert diese Arbeit die Relevanz dieses Werkes im quebecischen Kontext und, anhand der Stylistique comparée von Alfred Malblanc und der Skopos-Theorie von Katharina Reiß und Hans J. Vermeer, den Übersetzungsprozess eines Deutschschweizer Autoren für ein vielfältiges französischsprachiges Publikum. Einerseits wird die Rolle peritextueller Elemente, u.a. Fußnoten, im Übersetzungsprozess analysiert, welche die Erfüllung des skopos – der Zweck – vom translatum – der Zieltext – ermöglichen. Andererseits wird eine mögliche Verwendung von (quebecischen oder helvetischen) Regionalismen in einem Standardfranzösischen Translat in Bezug auf sprachliche Vielfalt und regionale und dialektale Variationen behandelt.

After many years of the oppressive apartheid government, the new democratic era came into being in 1994. Lot of policy changes came into being, including language policy. This new language policy of the post-apartheid era recognises eleven official languages which include the nine indigenous African languages which were previously recognised as regional languages in the different homelands. The present study investigates the progress of Tshivenda in terms of status and development since it was accorded the official status in South Africa. Literature investigating the status of Tshivenda is generally sparse. This study investigates the status of Tshivenda in South Africa to explore how minority languages which are also recognised as official languages are treated. In most multilingual countries, there are issues which affect the development of minority languages, but the South African situation is interesting in that some of the minority languages are recognised as official languages. This study is a comparative in nature. Firstly, the study compares the level of corpus planning and development in Tshivenda and other indigenous South African languages. Secondly, it compares how people use Tshivenda in a rural area of Lukalo Village where the language is not under pressure from other languages and in Cosmo City, an urban area in Gauteng where Tshivenda speakers come into contact with speakers of more dominant languages such as isiZulu and Sesotho. Language use in different domains like, media, education, government and the home is considered in order to establish how people use languages and the factors which influence their linguistic behaviours. The study also establishes the perceptions and attitudes of the speakers of Tshivenda as a minority and those of the speakers of other languages towards Tshivenda’s role in the different domains such as education and the media. This study was influenced by previous research (Alexander 1989, Webb 2002) which found out that during the apartheid period Tshivenda speakers used to disguise their identity by adopting dominant languages like isiZulu and Sesotho in Johannesburg. Accordingly, the present research wanted to establish how the language policy change in the democratic era has impacted on the confidence of Tshivenda speakers regarding themselves and their language. This study establishes that although Tshivenda is now an official language in post-apartheid South Africa, it still has features of underdevelopment and marginalization that are typically of unofficial minority languages. Translation, lexicographic and terminological work in this language still lags behind that of other indigenous South African languages and there is still a shortage of school textbooks and adult literature in this language. As a result, using the language in education, the media and other controlling domains is still quite challenging, although positive developments such as the teaching of the language at university level can be noted. The Tshivenda speakers generally have a positive attitude towards their language and seem prepared to learn and use it confidently as long its functional value is enhanced, which is currently not happening. As a result, some Tshivenda speakers still regard English as a more worthwhile language to learn at the expense of their language

Les minorités sont les fruits de l’histoire, des conquêtes, des défaites, des modifications de frontières. Mais si aucune histoire nationale ne ressemble à une autre, les minorités, dans leur diversité, se trouvent dans des situations s’apparentent les unes aux autres. Dans ce contexte global, cette étude a pour objectif d’appréhender dans quelle mesure les droits nationaux et internationaux des minorités répondent effectivement aux besoins des personnes appartenant à ces dernières. Pour ce faire, deux thématiques revenant régulièrement dans les doléances des membres des minorités ont été sélectionnées. Il s’agit, en premier lieu, de la prise en compte des spécificités relatives à l’habitat (dans sa diversité) et, en second lieu, de la possibilité de communiquer dans sa propre langue. Après une présentation du droit international portant sur ces questions, est ici étudiée la façon dont ce droit ou plutôt ces droits sont transposés et mis en œuvre dans les systèmes nationaux (en effet, il existe de fortes variantes entre la protection offerte par les organes universels et celles offertes par les organes régionaux européens et américains). Pour rendre compte de la diversité des situations nationales, six pays sont ici étudiés. Il s’agit de l’Espagne, de la France et de la Lituanie pour l’Europe et du Canada, du Costa Rica et du Paraguay pour l’Amérique. Nous constatons que, feignant de méconnaître l’intérêt que présente une protection convenable des minorités pour la stabilité de leur société nationale et même pour la démocratie en général, les gouvernants ne sont pas toujours prêts à mettre en œuvre les dispositions visant à protéger les personnes appartenant à des minorités et opposent l’intérêt général ou des arguments tirés du caractère unitaire de leur peuple, de leur territoire ou de leur nation. A ceci s’ajoutent des difficultés pratiques lors de la mise en œuvre des normes adoptées, difficultés occasionnées par des raisons financières, par exemple le coût des mesures positives visant à l’égalité effective dans les domaines de l’enseignement, des médias, de la vie privée et familiale ou encore obligation de partage des bénéfices générés par l’extraction minière avec les peuples autochtones. D’autres raisons peuvent être liées à l’intolérance sous-jacente dans la population majoritaire, par exemple les attaques de campements Roms ou l’interdiction de parler une langue minoritaire dans certains contextes ou lieux. Malgré cela, le droit international des minorités est en évolution continue, puisant dans la diversité des contextes régionaux et se fondant tant sur les droits de l’homme et le droit à ne pas être discriminé, que sur une transposition à toutes les minorités d’éléments des droits reconnus aux peuples autochtones en tant que premiers habitants d’un territoire donné. De plus, dans une volonté de promouvoir une démocratie véritable à caractère participatif, les organes de droits de l’homme poussent les autorités nationales à associer toujours plus les membres des minorités aux prises de décision les concernant, et à prendre ainsi en compte les besoins de ces derniers. Ainsi, l’étude comparée de la protection des minorités en Europe et en Amérique permet de se rendre compte des difficultés pratiques empêchant de protéger effectivement les minorités et d’appréhender dans quelle mesure le droit international peut aider les États à surmonter ces difficultés. / Minorities are the product of history, conquests, defeats and border changes. No two national histories are alike, however, minorities, in their diversity, find themselves in situations that appear similar the one another. In this overall context, the objective of this research is to better understand to what extent national and international minority rights effectively meet the needs of individuals belonging to those minorities. To do so, two issues that reoccure in the grievances of members of minorities have been selected for study. These are firstly the consideration shown towards housing specificities (in their diversity) and secondly, the possibility of communicating in one’s own language. Following the presentation of international law related to these issues, is studied the way this law, or better said these laws, are transposed and implemented in the national systems (in fact, there are major variants between the protection offered by universal organs and the one offered by European and American regional organs). In order to take into consideration the diversity of national situations, six countries were selected for this study. These were Spain, France and Lithuania in the European context, and Canada, Costa Rica and Paraguay in the American context. Our findings show that those who govern pretend to be unaware of the benefits related to adequate protection of minorities for the stability of national societies, as well as for democracy at large. As such, they are not always ready to implement the provisions that aim to protect persons belonging to minorities and claim the interest of the public good or arguments based on the unity of their people, territory or nation as reasons for doing so. In addition, it should be mentioned that some practical difficulties exist in the implementation of adopted norms. These include difficulties caused by financial reasons, for example, the cost of positive measures aiming at effective equality in the field of education, media, private and family life or the obligation to share with indigenous people the benefits generated by mining. Other reasons may be linked to underlying intolerance present in the majority population, for example, attacks on Roma settlements or prohibition on speaking a minority language in some spheres or places. However, the international rights of minorities are constantly evolving, drawing on the diversity of regional contexts and based on human rights and the right not to be discriminated against, as well as on the application, to all minorities, of elements of the rights recognized to indigenous peoples as the first inhabitants of a given territory. Moreover, in an effort to promote genuine democracy of a participatory nature, human rights bodies push national authorities to involve ever more members of minorities in decisions that affect them, thereby taking their needs into consideration. The comparative study of the protection of minorities in Europe and in America enables reporting the practical difficulties preventing minorities from being effectively protected and assists in understanding to what extent international law can help countries overcome these difficulties.

This study investigates the impact of Family Language Policy (FLP) on the conservation of minority languages in Zimbabwe. Family language policy is a newly emerging sub field of language planning and policy which focuses on the explicit and overt planning in relation to language use within the home among family members. The study is therefore predicated on the view that the conservation of any minority language largely depends on intergenerational transmission of the particular language. Intergenerational transmission is dependent in part, on the language practices in the home and therefore on family language policy. To understand the nature, practice and negotiation of family language policy in the context of minority language conservation, the study focuses on the perspectives of a sample of 34 L1 Kalanga parents and 28 L1 Tonga parents, who form the main target population. In this study, parents are considered to be the ‘authorities’ within the family, who have the capacity to articulate and influence language use and language practices. Also included in this study are the perspectives of language and culture associations representing minority languages regarding their role in the conservation of minority languages at the micro community level. Representatives of Kalanga Language and Cultural Development Association (KLCDA), Tonga Language and Culture Committee (TOLACCO) as well Zimbabwe Indigenous Languages Promotion Association (ZILPA) were targeted. This research takes on a qualitative approach. Methodologically, the study deployed the interview as the main data collection tool. Semi structured interviews were conducted with L1 Kalanga and L1 Tonga parents while unstructured interviews were conducted with the representatives of language and culture associations. This study deploys the language management theory and the reversing language shift theory as the analytical lenses that enable the study to understand the mechanics of family language policy and their impact on intergenerational transmission of minority languages in Zimbabwe. Language management theory allows for the extendibility of the tenets of language policy into the family domain and specifically affords the study to explore the dialectics of parental language ideologies and family language practices in the context of minority language conservation in Zimbabwe. The reversing language shift theory also emphasises the importance of the home domain in facilitating intergenerational transmission of minority languages. Findings of the study demonstrate that family language policy is an important aspect in intergenerational transmission of minority languages, itself a nuanced and muddled process. The research demonstrates that there is a correlation between parental language ideologies and parental disposition to articulate and persue a particular kind of family language policy. In particular, the study identified a pro-minority home language and pro- bilingual family language policies as the major parental language ideologies driving family language policies. However, the research reveals that parental language ideologies and parental explicitly articulated family language polices alone do not guarantee intergenerational transmission of minority languages, although they are very pertinent. This, as the study argues, is because family language policy is not immune to external language practices such as the school language policy or the wider language policy at the macro state level. Despite parents being the main articulators of family language policy, the study found out that in some instances, parental ideologies do not usually coincide with children’s practices. The mismatch between parental preferences and their children’s language practices at home are a reproduction, in the home, of extra familial language practices. This impacts family language practices by informing the child resistant agency to parental family language policy, leading to a renegotiation of family language policy. The research also demonstrates that parents, especially those with high impact beliefs are disposed to take active steps, or to employ language management strategies to realise their desired language practices in the home. The study demonstrates that these parental strategies may succeed in part, particularly when complemented by an enabling sociolinguistic environment beyond the home. The articulation of a pro-Tonga only family language policy was reproduced in the children’s language practices, while the preference for a pro- bilingual family language policy by the majority L1 Kalanga parents was snubbed for a predominantly Ndebele-only practice by their children. In most cases, the research found out that language use in formal domains impacted on the success of FLP. Tonga is widely taught in Schools within Binga districts while Kalanga is not as widespread in Bulilima and Mangwe schools. Ndebele is the most widespread language in Bulilima and Mangwe schools. As such; children of L1 Kalanga parents tend to evaluate Kalanga negatively while having positive associations with Ndebele. All these language practices are deemed to impact on family language policy and therefore on intergenerational transmission of minority languages in Zimbabwe. The desire by parents for the upward mobility of children results in them capitulating to the wider socio political reality and therefore to the demands of their children in terms of language use in the home. The study therefore concludes that family language policy is an important frontier in the fight against language shift and language endangerment, given the importance of the home in intergenerational transmission of minority languages. The study therefore implores future research to focus on this very important but largely unresearched sub field of language policy. The study observes that most researches have focused on the activities of larger state institutions and organisations and how they impact on minority language conservation, to the detriment of the uncontestable fact that the survival of any language depends on the active use of the language by the speakers. The research also recommends that future practice of language policy should not attempt to promote minority languages by discouraging the use of other majority languages, but rather, speakers should embrace bilingualism as a benefit and a resource and not as a liability. The interaction between the top down state language policy and the bottom up micro family language policy should be acknowledged and exploited, in such a way that the two can be deployed as complementary approaches in minority language conservation. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Languages, Linguistics and Literature)

Cross-dialectal acceptance of a written standard (CAWS) is essential for that standard to be used by speakers of divergent dialects of a language. Earlier works have focused on the influence of linguistic differences on comprehension of the standard, but little attention has been given the influence of socio-cultural and programmatic factors on acceptance of a standard. Case studies of the Lelemi and Likpakpaanl language development programmes provide information through which the socio-cultural and programmatic factors which influence CAWS can be identified. Due to the complex nature of the topic, various indicators are used to measure levels of acceptance of the written standard by speakers of each dialect. Socio-cultural factors which influence CAWS relate either to the language community's degree of interdialectal communication or to their perception of being a unified people. These factors include social structure, governance, cultural and religious activities, and patterns of marriage, commerce, transportation and migration. The existence of extensive social networks and the role of opinion leaders were also influential Activities of the two language development programmes which positively influenced CAWS included those which informed and involved speakers of all dialects of the language. These activities built on the existing levels of unity and inter-dialectal communication by using existing social networks. The Lelemi programme involved speakers of all dialects more uniformly than did the Likpakpaanl programme. However, both programmes informed and involved speakers of all dialects to some extent. The dialect communities of each language did not equally accept the written standards. Acceptance appeared to correlate more strongly with programmatic factors than with sociocultural or linguistic factors. This thesis provides a model for language teams to follow in 1) identifying socio-cultural factors which have the potential to influence CAWS; 2) applying knowledge about the socio-cultural situation to programme planning; and, 3) assessing levels of acceptance by speakers of each dialect. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / D. Litt. et Phil. (Linguistics)

La presente ricerca contribuisce con studi di plurilinguismo e contatti linguistici, concentrandosi sulle relazioni tra lingua e spazio pluridimensionale. L’argomento riguarda i processi di territorializzazione dell'italiano come lingua d'immigrazione nella Regione di Colonizzazione Italiana nel Nordest del Rio Grande del Sud (RCI). Con base su di un corpus organizzato e pubblicato da Frosi & Mioranza (1975; 1983) e completato da dati provenienti da varie altre ricerche, si propone: 1) di mappare la diversità dialettale degli immigrati italiani che s’insediarono nella RCI, ricostruendo, in questo modo, lo stato del multilinguismo che probabilmente configurò la situazione originale della fase di bilinguismo italiano/portoghese e 2) descrivere, partendo dall'interpretazione delle mappe elaborate, i processi (a) di territorializzazione (zonazione [forza centrifuga di espansione] e di insularietà [forza centripeta, del raccoglimento]), (b) koineizzazione e (c) manutenzione o sostituzione delle varietà di dialetto nello spazio multilingue considerato. Tale scopo serve come base per una serie di studi futuri, perché getta luce sulla situazione linguistica delle ex colonie (Colonie madri, al. Mutterkolonien) da dove le lingue d’immigrazione italiana, soprattutto la koinè veneta sud-rio-grandense, si diffusero nelle nuove colonie (colonie figlie, al. Tochterkolonien) nel Nord e Nordovest del Rio Grande del Sud, nel Centro e Ovest di Santa Catarina, Sudovest del Paraná, così come in nuove zone del Centro-Ovest, o anche oltrepassando i confini verso Misiones (Argentina) e Paraguay. Allo stesso tempo, lo studio contribuisce a colmare delle lacune esistenti nei censimenti demografici brasiliani. Nonostante alcuni sforzi localizzati nei censimenti, essi non riescono ad identificare, quantificare e fare la distribuzione della diversità linguistica brasiliana, come riconosce il decreto n º 7.387, del 9 dicembre 2010, istituendo l'Inventario Nazionale della Diversità Linguistica. D'altra parte, la comprensione dei processi di occupazione dello spazio da popolazioni esogene e il ruolo svolto dalla lingua in questo processo rappresenta per la ricerca del plurilinguismo e dei contatti linguistici un contributo di grande rilevanza. Per l'analisi delle correlazioni tra lingua e spazio, abbiamo utilizzato come parametro di correlazioni le variabili indicate da Altenhofen (2014 in corso di stampa) considerate rilevanti nella descrizione delle territorialità e dei processi di territorializzazioni di lingue, di varietà e comunità di parlanti. Si includono tra le variabili osservate le correlazioni tra spazio e tempo, confini, origine socioculturale, età della località, la diversità etnica locale, il grado di isolamento e di urbanizzazione, vie di comunicazione e di migrazioni oltre le configurazioni geografiche di ordine fisico. Come sfide attinenti alla cartografia della variazione e la diversità linguistica si pone la necessità di elaborazione di mappe in serie, come suggerisce Thun (2010). Questa procedura permette un’ampia analisi dinamica delle relazioni sociali e linguistiche nello spazio multi-dimensionale e non più statica, come avveniva nella dialettologia tradizionale. I risultati indicano la rilevanza di queste correlazioni non solo nella mappatura delle zone di plurilinguismo, ma anche nella comprensione della dinamica dell'occupazione dello spazio. / A presente pesquisa contribui com os estudos de plurilinguismo e contatos linguísticos, enfocando as relações entre língua e espaço pluridimensional. Seu tema são os processos de territorialização do italiano como língua de imigração na Região de Colonização Italiana no Nordeste do Rio Grande do Sul (RCI). Com base em um corpus organizado e disponibilizado por Frosi & Mioranza (1975; 1983), e complementado por dados de acervos diversos, pretende-se 1) mapear a diversidade dialetal dos imigrantes italianos que colonizaram a RCI, reconstruindo desta forma o estado de multilinguismo que provavelmente configurou a situação original da fase de bilinguismo italiano-português, e 2) descrever, a partir da interpretação dos mapas elaborados, os processos a) de territorialização (arealização [força centrífuga, de expansão] e insulamento [força centrípeta, de recolhimento]), b) coineização e c) manutenção ou substituição de variedades dialetais no espaço multilíngue considerado. Tal propósito serve de base para uma série de estudos futuros, porque lança luz sobre a situação linguística das antigas colônias (colônias matriciais, al. Mutterkolonien) de onde as línguas de imigração italiana, sobretudo da coiné vêneto-sul-rio-grandense, se difundiram para colônias novas (colônias filiais, al. Tochterkolonien) no norte e noroeste rio-grandense, centro e oeste catarinense, sudoeste paranaense, bem como em áreas novas do centro-oeste, ou mesmo transpondo as fronteiras em direção a Misiones (Argentina) e Paraguai. Ao mesmo tempo, o estudo contribui para preencher lacunas nos censos demográficos brasileiros. Apesar de alguns esforços localizados de recenseamento, esses não dão conta da identificação, quantificação e distribuição da diversidade linguística brasileira, como reconhece o decreto nº 7.387, de 9 de dezembro de 2010, ao instituir o Inventário Nacional da Diversidade Linguística. Por outro lado, a compreensão dos processos de ocupação do espaço por populações exógenas e o papel da língua nesse processo representa para a pesquisa do plurilinguismo e dos contatos linguísticos uma contribuição de grande relevância. Para a análise das correlações entre língua e espaço, utilizamos como parâmetro de correlações, as variáveis apontadas por Altenhofen (2014 [no prelo]) como relevantes na descrição de territorialidades e processos de territorialização de línguas, variedades e comunidades de falantes. Incluem-se entre as variáveis observadas as correlações entre espaço e tempo, fronteiras, origem sociocultural, idade da localidade, diversidade étnica local, grau de isolamento e de urbanização, vias de comunicação e de migrações, além de configurações geográficas de ordem física. Como desafios para a cartografia da variação e diversidade linguística coloca-se a necessidade da elaboração de mapas em série, como sugere Thun (2010). Esse procedimento permite uma macroanálise dinâmica das relações sociais e linguísticas no espaço pluridimensional, e não mais estática, como ocorria na dialetologia tradicional. Os resultados mostram a relevância dessas correlações não apenas no mapeamento das áreas de plurilinguismo, mas também na compreensão da dinâmica de ocupação do espaço. / This research contributes with the studies of multilingualism and language contact, focusing on the relations between language and multi-dimensional space. The territorialization processes of Italian as an immigration language in the Italian Colonization Region in the Northeast of Rio Grande do Sul (RCI) are its main focus. Based on a corpus organized and made available by Frosi & Mioranza (1975; 1983), and supplemented with data from various collections, the objective is 1) to map the dialectal diversity of the Italian immigrants that colonized RCI, thus reconstructing the state of multilingualism that possibly configured the original situation of the Italian- Portuguese bilingualism phase and 2) to describe, based on the interpretation of the elaborated maps, the processes a) of territorialization (arealization [centrifugal force, expansion] and isolation [centripetal force, shrinking]), b) koineization and c) maintenance or substitution of dialectal varieties in the considered multilingual space. Such an aim serves as basis for a series of future studies, because it sheds light on the linguistic situation of the old colonies (mother colonies, ger. Mutterkolonien), where the languages of the Italian immigration, above all the commonly used Veneto-south-Rio-Grande language, expanded to new colonies (daughter colonies, ger. Tochterkolonien) in the north and north west of Rio Grande do Sul, the central and west Santa Catarina, southwest of Parana, as well as in new central west areas, or even transcending the borders towards Misiones (Argentina) and Paraguay. At the same time, the study contributes to fill in the blanks in Brazilian demographic census. Despite some localized efforts to update census, they cannot fully identify, quantify and distribute the Brazilian linguistic diversity as recognized by Decree nº 7.387, December 9, 2010, instituting the National Inventory of Linguistic Diversity. On the other hand, comprehension of the processes of space occupation by exogenous populations and the importance of language in this process represents for the research of multilingualism and language contact a contribution of great relevance. For the analysis of correlations between language and space we used as correlation parameter the variables pointed out by Altenhofen (2014 [in press]) as relevant in the description of territorialities and language territorialization processes, varieties and speech communities. Among the variables observed, we included the correlations between space and time, frontiers, socio cultural origin, location age, local ethnic diversity, isolation and urbanization degree and communication and migration routes, apart from geographic configurations of physical order. The necessity of the elaboration of a series of maps for the cartography of variation and linguistic diversity as suggested by Thun (2010) is posed as a challenge. This procedure allows a dynamic macro analysis of the social and linguistic relations in the multilingual space, and not a statistic analysis as it occurred in traditional dialectology. The results show the relevance of these correlations not only in mapping the areas of multilingualism but also in understanding the dynamics of space occupation.

La presente ricerca contribuisce con studi di plurilinguismo e contatti linguistici, concentrandosi sulle relazioni tra lingua e spazio pluridimensionale. L’argomento riguarda i processi di territorializzazione dell'italiano come lingua d'immigrazione nella Regione di Colonizzazione Italiana nel Nordest del Rio Grande del Sud (RCI). Con base su di un corpus organizzato e pubblicato da Frosi & Mioranza (1975; 1983) e completato da dati provenienti da varie altre ricerche, si propone: 1) di mappare la diversità dialettale degli immigrati italiani che s’insediarono nella RCI, ricostruendo, in questo modo, lo stato del multilinguismo che probabilmente configurò la situazione originale della fase di bilinguismo italiano/portoghese e 2) descrivere, partendo dall'interpretazione delle mappe elaborate, i processi (a) di territorializzazione (zonazione [forza centrifuga di espansione] e di insularietà [forza centripeta, del raccoglimento]), (b) koineizzazione e (c) manutenzione o sostituzione delle varietà di dialetto nello spazio multilingue considerato. Tale scopo serve come base per una serie di studi futuri, perché getta luce sulla situazione linguistica delle ex colonie (Colonie madri, al. Mutterkolonien) da dove le lingue d’immigrazione italiana, soprattutto la koinè veneta sud-rio-grandense, si diffusero nelle nuove colonie (colonie figlie, al. Tochterkolonien) nel Nord e Nordovest del Rio Grande del Sud, nel Centro e Ovest di Santa Catarina, Sudovest del Paraná, così come in nuove zone del Centro-Ovest, o anche oltrepassando i confini verso Misiones (Argentina) e Paraguay. Allo stesso tempo, lo studio contribuisce a colmare delle lacune esistenti nei censimenti demografici brasiliani. Nonostante alcuni sforzi localizzati nei censimenti, essi non riescono ad identificare, quantificare e fare la distribuzione della diversità linguistica brasiliana, come riconosce il decreto n º 7.387, del 9 dicembre 2010, istituendo l'Inventario Nazionale della Diversità Linguistica. D'altra parte, la comprensione dei processi di occupazione dello spazio da popolazioni esogene e il ruolo svolto dalla lingua in questo processo rappresenta per la ricerca del plurilinguismo e dei contatti linguistici un contributo di grande rilevanza. Per l'analisi delle correlazioni tra lingua e spazio, abbiamo utilizzato come parametro di correlazioni le variabili indicate da Altenhofen (2014 in corso di stampa) considerate rilevanti nella descrizione delle territorialità e dei processi di territorializzazioni di lingue, di varietà e comunità di parlanti. Si includono tra le variabili osservate le correlazioni tra spazio e tempo, confini, origine socioculturale, età della località, la diversità etnica locale, il grado di isolamento e di urbanizzazione, vie di comunicazione e di migrazioni oltre le configurazioni geografiche di ordine fisico. Come sfide attinenti alla cartografia della variazione e la diversità linguistica si pone la necessità di elaborazione di mappe in serie, come suggerisce Thun (2010). Questa procedura permette un’ampia analisi dinamica delle relazioni sociali e linguistiche nello spazio multi-dimensionale e non più statica, come avveniva nella dialettologia tradizionale. I risultati indicano la rilevanza di queste correlazioni non solo nella mappatura delle zone di plurilinguismo, ma anche nella comprensione della dinamica dell'occupazione dello spazio. / A presente pesquisa contribui com os estudos de plurilinguismo e contatos linguísticos, enfocando as relações entre língua e espaço pluridimensional. Seu tema são os processos de territorialização do italiano como língua de imigração na Região de Colonização Italiana no Nordeste do Rio Grande do Sul (RCI). Com base em um corpus organizado e disponibilizado por Frosi & Mioranza (1975; 1983), e complementado por dados de acervos diversos, pretende-se 1) mapear a diversidade dialetal dos imigrantes italianos que colonizaram a RCI, reconstruindo desta forma o estado de multilinguismo que provavelmente configurou a situação original da fase de bilinguismo italiano-português, e 2) descrever, a partir da interpretação dos mapas elaborados, os processos a) de territorialização (arealização [força centrífuga, de expansão] e insulamento [força centrípeta, de recolhimento]), b) coineização e c) manutenção ou substituição de variedades dialetais no espaço multilíngue considerado. Tal propósito serve de base para uma série de estudos futuros, porque lança luz sobre a situação linguística das antigas colônias (colônias matriciais, al. Mutterkolonien) de onde as línguas de imigração italiana, sobretudo da coiné vêneto-sul-rio-grandense, se difundiram para colônias novas (colônias filiais, al. Tochterkolonien) no norte e noroeste rio-grandense, centro e oeste catarinense, sudoeste paranaense, bem como em áreas novas do centro-oeste, ou mesmo transpondo as fronteiras em direção a Misiones (Argentina) e Paraguai. Ao mesmo tempo, o estudo contribui para preencher lacunas nos censos demográficos brasileiros. Apesar de alguns esforços localizados de recenseamento, esses não dão conta da identificação, quantificação e distribuição da diversidade linguística brasileira, como reconhece o decreto nº 7.387, de 9 de dezembro de 2010, ao instituir o Inventário Nacional da Diversidade Linguística. Por outro lado, a compreensão dos processos de ocupação do espaço por populações exógenas e o papel da língua nesse processo representa para a pesquisa do plurilinguismo e dos contatos linguísticos uma contribuição de grande relevância. Para a análise das correlações entre língua e espaço, utilizamos como parâmetro de correlações, as variáveis apontadas por Altenhofen (2014 [no prelo]) como relevantes na descrição de territorialidades e processos de territorialização de línguas, variedades e comunidades de falantes. Incluem-se entre as variáveis observadas as correlações entre espaço e tempo, fronteiras, origem sociocultural, idade da localidade, diversidade étnica local, grau de isolamento e de urbanização, vias de comunicação e de migrações, além de configurações geográficas de ordem física. Como desafios para a cartografia da variação e diversidade linguística coloca-se a necessidade da elaboração de mapas em série, como sugere Thun (2010). Esse procedimento permite uma macroanálise dinâmica das relações sociais e linguísticas no espaço pluridimensional, e não mais estática, como ocorria na dialetologia tradicional. Os resultados mostram a relevância dessas correlações não apenas no mapeamento das áreas de plurilinguismo, mas também na compreensão da dinâmica de ocupação do espaço. / This research contributes with the studies of multilingualism and language contact, focusing on the relations between language and multi-dimensional space. The territorialization processes of Italian as an immigration language in the Italian Colonization Region in the Northeast of Rio Grande do Sul (RCI) are its main focus. Based on a corpus organized and made available by Frosi & Mioranza (1975; 1983), and supplemented with data from various collections, the objective is 1) to map the dialectal diversity of the Italian immigrants that colonized RCI, thus reconstructing the state of multilingualism that possibly configured the original situation of the Italian- Portuguese bilingualism phase and 2) to describe, based on the interpretation of the elaborated maps, the processes a) of territorialization (arealization [centrifugal force, expansion] and isolation [centripetal force, shrinking]), b) koineization and c) maintenance or substitution of dialectal varieties in the considered multilingual space. Such an aim serves as basis for a series of future studies, because it sheds light on the linguistic situation of the old colonies (mother colonies, ger. Mutterkolonien), where the languages of the Italian immigration, above all the commonly used Veneto-south-Rio-Grande language, expanded to new colonies (daughter colonies, ger. Tochterkolonien) in the north and north west of Rio Grande do Sul, the central and west Santa Catarina, southwest of Parana, as well as in new central west areas, or even transcending the borders towards Misiones (Argentina) and Paraguay. At the same time, the study contributes to fill in the blanks in Brazilian demographic census. Despite some localized efforts to update census, they cannot fully identify, quantify and distribute the Brazilian linguistic diversity as recognized by Decree nº 7.387, December 9, 2010, instituting the National Inventory of Linguistic Diversity. On the other hand, comprehension of the processes of space occupation by exogenous populations and the importance of language in this process represents for the research of multilingualism and language contact a contribution of great relevance. For the analysis of correlations between language and space we used as correlation parameter the variables pointed out by Altenhofen (2014 [in press]) as relevant in the description of territorialities and language territorialization processes, varieties and speech communities. Among the variables observed, we included the correlations between space and time, frontiers, socio cultural origin, location age, local ethnic diversity, isolation and urbanization degree and communication and migration routes, apart from geographic configurations of physical order. The necessity of the elaboration of a series of maps for the cartography of variation and linguistic diversity as suggested by Thun (2010) is posed as a challenge. This procedure allows a dynamic macro analysis of the social and linguistic relations in the multilingual space, and not a statistic analysis as it occurred in traditional dialectology. The results show the relevance of these correlations not only in mapping the areas of multilingualism but also in understanding the dynamics of space occupation.

La presente ricerca contribuisce con studi di plurilinguismo e contatti linguistici, concentrandosi sulle relazioni tra lingua e spazio pluridimensionale. L’argomento riguarda i processi di territorializzazione dell'italiano come lingua d'immigrazione nella Regione di Colonizzazione Italiana nel Nordest del Rio Grande del Sud (RCI). Con base su di un corpus organizzato e pubblicato da Frosi & Mioranza (1975; 1983) e completato da dati provenienti da varie altre ricerche, si propone: 1) di mappare la diversità dialettale degli immigrati italiani che s’insediarono nella RCI, ricostruendo, in questo modo, lo stato del multilinguismo che probabilmente configurò la situazione originale della fase di bilinguismo italiano/portoghese e 2) descrivere, partendo dall'interpretazione delle mappe elaborate, i processi (a) di territorializzazione (zonazione [forza centrifuga di espansione] e di insularietà [forza centripeta, del raccoglimento]), (b) koineizzazione e (c) manutenzione o sostituzione delle varietà di dialetto nello spazio multilingue considerato. Tale scopo serve come base per una serie di studi futuri, perché getta luce sulla situazione linguistica delle ex colonie (Colonie madri, al. Mutterkolonien) da dove le lingue d’immigrazione italiana, soprattutto la koinè veneta sud-rio-grandense, si diffusero nelle nuove colonie (colonie figlie, al. Tochterkolonien) nel Nord e Nordovest del Rio Grande del Sud, nel Centro e Ovest di Santa Catarina, Sudovest del Paraná, così come in nuove zone del Centro-Ovest, o anche oltrepassando i confini verso Misiones (Argentina) e Paraguay. Allo stesso tempo, lo studio contribuisce a colmare delle lacune esistenti nei censimenti demografici brasiliani. Nonostante alcuni sforzi localizzati nei censimenti, essi non riescono ad identificare, quantificare e fare la distribuzione della diversità linguistica brasiliana, come riconosce il decreto n º 7.387, del 9 dicembre 2010, istituendo l'Inventario Nazionale della Diversità Linguistica. D'altra parte, la comprensione dei processi di occupazione dello spazio da popolazioni esogene e il ruolo svolto dalla lingua in questo processo rappresenta per la ricerca del plurilinguismo e dei contatti linguistici un contributo di grande rilevanza. Per l'analisi delle correlazioni tra lingua e spazio, abbiamo utilizzato come parametro di correlazioni le variabili indicate da Altenhofen (2014 in corso di stampa) considerate rilevanti nella descrizione delle territorialità e dei processi di territorializzazioni di lingue, di varietà e comunità di parlanti. Si includono tra le variabili osservate le correlazioni tra spazio e tempo, confini, origine socioculturale, età della località, la diversità etnica locale, il grado di isolamento e di urbanizzazione, vie di comunicazione e di migrazioni oltre le configurazioni geografiche di ordine fisico. Come sfide attinenti alla cartografia della variazione e la diversità linguistica si pone la necessità di elaborazione di mappe in serie, come suggerisce Thun (2010). Questa procedura permette un’ampia analisi dinamica delle relazioni sociali e linguistiche nello spazio multi-dimensionale e non più statica, come avveniva nella dialettologia tradizionale. I risultati indicano la rilevanza di queste correlazioni non solo nella mappatura delle zone di plurilinguismo, ma anche nella comprensione della dinamica dell'occupazione dello spazio. / A presente pesquisa contribui com os estudos de plurilinguismo e contatos linguísticos, enfocando as relações entre língua e espaço pluridimensional. Seu tema são os processos de territorialização do italiano como língua de imigração na Região de Colonização Italiana no Nordeste do Rio Grande do Sul (RCI). Com base em um corpus organizado e disponibilizado por Frosi & Mioranza (1975; 1983), e complementado por dados de acervos diversos, pretende-se 1) mapear a diversidade dialetal dos imigrantes italianos que colonizaram a RCI, reconstruindo desta forma o estado de multilinguismo que provavelmente configurou a situação original da fase de bilinguismo italiano-português, e 2) descrever, a partir da interpretação dos mapas elaborados, os processos a) de territorialização (arealização [força centrífuga, de expansão] e insulamento [força centrípeta, de recolhimento]), b) coineização e c) manutenção ou substituição de variedades dialetais no espaço multilíngue considerado. Tal propósito serve de base para uma série de estudos futuros, porque lança luz sobre a situação linguística das antigas colônias (colônias matriciais, al. Mutterkolonien) de onde as línguas de imigração italiana, sobretudo da coiné vêneto-sul-rio-grandense, se difundiram para colônias novas (colônias filiais, al. Tochterkolonien) no norte e noroeste rio-grandense, centro e oeste catarinense, sudoeste paranaense, bem como em áreas novas do centro-oeste, ou mesmo transpondo as fronteiras em direção a Misiones (Argentina) e Paraguai. Ao mesmo tempo, o estudo contribui para preencher lacunas nos censos demográficos brasileiros. Apesar de alguns esforços localizados de recenseamento, esses não dão conta da identificação, quantificação e distribuição da diversidade linguística brasileira, como reconhece o decreto nº 7.387, de 9 de dezembro de 2010, ao instituir o Inventário Nacional da Diversidade Linguística. Por outro lado, a compreensão dos processos de ocupação do espaço por populações exógenas e o papel da língua nesse processo representa para a pesquisa do plurilinguismo e dos contatos linguísticos uma contribuição de grande relevância. Para a análise das correlações entre língua e espaço, utilizamos como parâmetro de correlações, as variáveis apontadas por Altenhofen (2014 [no prelo]) como relevantes na descrição de territorialidades e processos de territorialização de línguas, variedades e comunidades de falantes. Incluem-se entre as variáveis observadas as correlações entre espaço e tempo, fronteiras, origem sociocultural, idade da localidade, diversidade étnica local, grau de isolamento e de urbanização, vias de comunicação e de migrações, além de configurações geográficas de ordem física. Como desafios para a cartografia da variação e diversidade linguística coloca-se a necessidade da elaboração de mapas em série, como sugere Thun (2010). Esse procedimento permite uma macroanálise dinâmica das relações sociais e linguísticas no espaço pluridimensional, e não mais estática, como ocorria na dialetologia tradicional. Os resultados mostram a relevância dessas correlações não apenas no mapeamento das áreas de plurilinguismo, mas também na compreensão da dinâmica de ocupação do espaço. / This research contributes with the studies of multilingualism and language contact, focusing on the relations between language and multi-dimensional space. The territorialization processes of Italian as an immigration language in the Italian Colonization Region in the Northeast of Rio Grande do Sul (RCI) are its main focus. Based on a corpus organized and made available by Frosi & Mioranza (1975; 1983), and supplemented with data from various collections, the objective is 1) to map the dialectal diversity of the Italian immigrants that colonized RCI, thus reconstructing the state of multilingualism that possibly configured the original situation of the Italian- Portuguese bilingualism phase and 2) to describe, based on the interpretation of the elaborated maps, the processes a) of territorialization (arealization [centrifugal force, expansion] and isolation [centripetal force, shrinking]), b) koineization and c) maintenance or substitution of dialectal varieties in the considered multilingual space. Such an aim serves as basis for a series of future studies, because it sheds light on the linguistic situation of the old colonies (mother colonies, ger. Mutterkolonien), where the languages of the Italian immigration, above all the commonly used Veneto-south-Rio-Grande language, expanded to new colonies (daughter colonies, ger. Tochterkolonien) in the north and north west of Rio Grande do Sul, the central and west Santa Catarina, southwest of Parana, as well as in new central west areas, or even transcending the borders towards Misiones (Argentina) and Paraguay. At the same time, the study contributes to fill in the blanks in Brazilian demographic census. Despite some localized efforts to update census, they cannot fully identify, quantify and distribute the Brazilian linguistic diversity as recognized by Decree nº 7.387, December 9, 2010, instituting the National Inventory of Linguistic Diversity. On the other hand, comprehension of the processes of space occupation by exogenous populations and the importance of language in this process represents for the research of multilingualism and language contact a contribution of great relevance. For the analysis of correlations between language and space we used as correlation parameter the variables pointed out by Altenhofen (2014 [in press]) as relevant in the description of territorialities and language territorialization processes, varieties and speech communities. Among the variables observed, we included the correlations between space and time, frontiers, socio cultural origin, location age, local ethnic diversity, isolation and urbanization degree and communication and migration routes, apart from geographic configurations of physical order. The necessity of the elaboration of a series of maps for the cartography of variation and linguistic diversity as suggested by Thun (2010) is posed as a challenge. This procedure allows a dynamic macro analysis of the social and linguistic relations in the multilingual space, and not a statistic analysis as it occurred in traditional dialectology. The results show the relevance of these correlations not only in mapping the areas of multilingualism but also in understanding the dynamics of space occupation.

Diese Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit der Evaluation von Sprachpolitiken mit Hilfe von Sprachdynamik Modellen. Da sprachliche Diversität ein zentrales Merkmal moderner Gesellschaften darstellt, müssen Staaten und Administrationen Sprachpolitiken sorgfältig gestalten und evaluieren. Mögliche Effekte, Nutzen und Kosten von Politiken müssen bewertet und gegeneinander abgewogen werden. Eine wichtige Eigenschaft von Sprachpolitiken ist dabei, dass sich die Anzahl derer, die von ihnen profitieren, sowie deren Kosten über die Zeit stark verändern können. Um dies zu berücksichtigen, präsentiert die Dissertation eine Kombination aus klassischen Politikanalyse Werkzeugen und neuen Sprachdynamik Modellen. Im Gegensatz zu bereits existierenden Modellen, können in den neu entwickelten Modellen Parameter aus empirischen Daten geschätzt werden. Dies ist eine Voraussetzung, um langfristige Effekte von Politiken realistisch abbilden zu können. Die Dissertation besteht aus vier eigenständigen Aufsätzen. Im ersten Aufsatz wird mit einem abstrakten Modell gezeigt, dass es für einen Staat optimal sein kann die Minderheitensprache in Form von Bilingualität am Leben zu erhalten. In den folgenden beiden Aufsätzen werden realistischere Modelle entwickelt und damit zwei empirische Fälle analysiert. Im letzten Aufsatz werden Erweiterungen der vorherigen Modelle auf den Fall multipler Minderheitensprachen vorgestellt. / This thesis deals with language policy evaluation from a language dynamics modeling perspective. As linguistic diversity is an essential feature of most modern societies, states and administrations have to thoroughly design and analyze language policies. Potential effects, benefits and costs have to be assessed and weighted against one another. A pivotal characteristic of language policies is that the numbers of their beneficiaries and costs can change dramatically over time. To account for these changes, the thesis proposes a combination of traditional policy evaluation techniques with well designed language dynamics models. In contrast to previous models in the literature, the thesis proposes and analyzes models based on parameters obtainable from empirical data. It is argued that this is a prerequisite to analyze the long term effects of policies in a realistic fashion. This thesis consists of four self-contained essays. In the first essay we show with the help of an abstract model that it can be optimal for the state to keep a minority language alive in the form of bilingualism. In the next two essays more realistic models are developed and applied to the empirical cases. In the last essay extensions of the previous models to the case of several minority languages are presented.

Young people are a central group in revitalisation efforts that aim to turn the tide of language shift for speakers of endangered languages. In the context of the five national minorities of Sweden, this thesis looks at the motivation of young Sweden Finns to participate in or lead revitalisation efforts for Finnish in Sweden. The study circles in beginner’s Finnish organised by the Sweden Finnish Youth Organisation provide a point of entry into the way young people plan and adapt revitalisation efforts to the needs of other young people. Along with a study of materials pertaining to the study circles, five young people have been interviewed about their participation in or leadership of the study circles, or their involvement in the Sweden Finnish Youth organisation. Grin’s (1990) COD model has been used to explore the relationship between motivation (Desire) and the Sweden Finnish context. The study found that the study circles have been adapted to the needs and desires of young people on several levels. It also found that identity, a practical and emotional need for the Finnish language, an awareness of the situation for the national minorities in Sweden, and the acceptance of varying goals and non-standard varieties of Finnish, play important roles in young people’s motivation to learn Finnish and participate in or lead revitalisation efforts.