A Estação Ecológica (ESEC) Tupinambás, uma UC marinha de proteção integral, está localizada no litoral norte do estado de São Paulo (SP). Foi criada em 1987, sendo utilizada pela Marinha do Brasil para exercícios de tiro até recentemente no arquipélago dos Alcatrazes (São Sebastião, SP). Isto justifica a baixa quantidade de informações disponíveis sobre essa região. Através do levantamento de informações sobre a composição biológica, aspectos socioeconômicos e oceanográficos da área do arquipélago, da utilização de índices ecológicos (dominância, diversidade, riqueza e equabilidade) e multimétricos (Índice ABC e Índice de Integridade Biótica), e da elaboração da Carta de Sensibilidade Ambiental ao Derramamento de Óleo, verificou-se (1) a semelhança da composição ictiofaunística do arquipélago dos Alcatrazes em relação à Santos e São Sebastião, (2) se a região mantém a integridade biótica da ictiofauna mesmo localizando-se entre regiões impactadas, e (3) se o ponto mais sensível ecologicamente detectado pela carta SAO pode ser a área de maior suscetibilidade de ser atingida por um derramamento de óleo. Os dados analisados são provenientes de trabalhos pretéritos e coletas realizadas em setembro de 2011 e janeiro de 2014. A composição ictíica variou ao longo do tempo e períodos de coleta, respondendo à composição sedimentar e à variabilidade das propriedades hidrográficas. Foi constatada alta similaridade da ictiofauna do arquipélago com aquelas encontradas na plataforma continental de Santos e São Sebastião. Em relação à integridade biótica local, a partir da ictiofauna, as duas técnicas aplicadas refletiram o histórico no estado de conservação da ESEC, com a melhora dos índices ao longo do período estudado. A produção da carta SAO resultou em um produto único, que poderá auxiliar a gestão da UC e em planos de contenção, e em um compêndio das espécies encontradas na região, dentre as quais se encontram algumas endêmicas e muitas ameaçadas, segundo critérios nacionais e internacionais. Finalmente, espera-se que a alta biodiversidade do entorno do arquipélago, que representa uma vasta fonte de conhecimentos para o futuro, se encontre protegida pelo respeito à legislação e fiscalização da ESEC em que se encontra, pela Área Delta da Marinha do Brasil, e pela distância da costa e de fontes de contaminação. / The Tupinambás Ecological Station (TES), a Marine Protected Area (MPA) of integral protection, is located on the northern coast of São Paulo state (SP). It was established in 1987 and it has been used by the Brazilian Navy for shooting practice until recently in the Alcatrazes archipelago (São Sebastião, SP). That accounts for the low amount of the available data in this region. Using information on the biological composition, socioeconomic and oceanographic aspects variables, combined with ecological (dominance, diversity, richness and evenness) and multimetric (ABC method and Biotic Integrity Index) indexes and the preparation of the Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) Map, we (1) assessed the similarity of the ichthyofauna of the Alcatrazes archipelago regarding compared to Santos and São Sebastião, (2) verified whether the region retains the ichthyofauna biotic integrity despite being located between affected regions and (3) verified whether the most ecologically sensitive region detected by the ESI map is the area most likely to be hit by an oil spill. The analyzed data come from previous works and samplings carried out in September 2011 and January 2014. The ichthyofauna varied over time and sampling points. Its distribution also reflected the sedimentary composition and the variability of hydrographic properties. High similarity between the ichthyofauna of the archipelago and those found on the continental shelf off Santos and São Sebastião. Regarding the biotic integrity, the two techniques applied reflected the conservation history of the TES, with an improvement in the indexes during the study period. The production of the ESI map resulted in an unique product that can assist in the management of the MPA and containment plans, and a species compendium found in the region, among which many of them are endemic and endangered, according to national and international classifications. Finally, it is expected that the high biodiversity of the archipelago surroundings, which still represents a vast source of knowledge for the future, is protected by the Delta Area of the Brazilian Navy, by the law that ensure the TES and by the distance from the coast.

Este estudo de caso teve como objetivo avaliar o conteúdo da participação dos diversos atores componentes do Conselho Gestor da Área de Proteção Ambiental Marinha do Litoral Centro do Estado de São Paulo (APAMLC). Para isso foi caracterizada a participação politica, a atuação das instituições acadêmicas e utilização do conhecimento na gestão da APAMLC. A análise de conteúdo é utilizada como metodologia para levantamento de dados, a partir da análise das atas das reuniões do Conselho Gestor; entrevistas e observação direta das reuniões. A representatividade e a mediação foram os fatores que mais contribuíram para eficiência da atuação do Conselho Gestor na gestão participativa da APAMLC. A atuação das instituições acadêmicas foi maior no sentido de educar e comunicar, havendo demandas da gestão para o compartilhamento de dados, desenvolvimento de pesquisas e parcerias futuras para projetos de educação comunitária. Os conhecimentos tradicional e científico são complementares na gestão da APAMLC e o diálogo é a principal ferramenta para gestão compartilhada dos recursos marinhos. Parcerias de longa duração para elaboração de uma plataforma colaborativa de dados via web é o principal desafio que esta pesquisa identificou, para o aprimoramento da gestão participativa da APAMLC / This case study aims to evaluate the participation content of the various components actors of the Environmental Protection Area of Coastal Marine Center of the State of São Paulo Managing Board (APAMLC). For this, we featured the political participation, the role of academic institutions and use of knowledge in managing APAMLC. Content analysis is used as a methodology for data collection, based on the analysis of the minutes of the Management Board meetings, interviews and direct observation of the meetings. The representation and mediation were the factors that contributed most to the efficiency performance of the Managing Board in participatory management APAMLC. The role of academic institutions was higher towards educating and communicating, with claims management for data sharing, research development and future partnerships for community education projects. Traditional and scientific knowledge are complementary in the management of APAMLC and dialogue is the main tool for management of shared marine resources. A long-term partnership for developing a collaborative data platform via web is the main challenge that this research identified for the enhancement of participatory management APAMLC

Este estudo de caso teve como objetivo avaliar o conteúdo da participação dos diversos atores componentes do Conselho Gestor da Área de Proteção Ambiental Marinha do Litoral Centro do Estado de São Paulo (APAMLC). Para isso foi caracterizada a participação politica, a atuação das instituições acadêmicas e utilização do conhecimento na gestão da APAMLC. A análise de conteúdo é utilizada como metodologia para levantamento de dados, a partir da análise das atas das reuniões do Conselho Gestor; entrevistas e observação direta das reuniões. A representatividade e a mediação foram os fatores que mais contribuíram para eficiência da atuação do Conselho Gestor na gestão participativa da APAMLC. A atuação das instituições acadêmicas foi maior no sentido de educar e comunicar, havendo demandas da gestão para o compartilhamento de dados, desenvolvimento de pesquisas e parcerias futuras para projetos de educação comunitária. Os conhecimentos tradicional e científico são complementares na gestão da APAMLC e o diálogo é a principal ferramenta para gestão compartilhada dos recursos marinhos. Parcerias de longa duração para elaboração de uma plataforma colaborativa de dados via web é o principal desafio que esta pesquisa identificou, para o aprimoramento da gestão participativa da APAMLC / This case study aims to evaluate the participation content of the various components actors of the Environmental Protection Area of Coastal Marine Center of the State of São Paulo Managing Board (APAMLC). For this, we featured the political participation, the role of academic institutions and use of knowledge in managing APAMLC. Content analysis is used as a methodology for data collection, based on the analysis of the minutes of the Management Board meetings, interviews and direct observation of the meetings. The representation and mediation were the factors that contributed most to the efficiency performance of the Managing Board in participatory management APAMLC. The role of academic institutions was higher towards educating and communicating, with claims management for data sharing, research development and future partnerships for community education projects. Traditional and scientific knowledge are complementary in the management of APAMLC and dialogue is the main tool for management of shared marine resources. A long-term partnership for developing a collaborative data platform via web is the main challenge that this research identified for the enhancement of participatory management APAMLC

Sous l’injonction internationale à la participation, de nouvelles modalités de gouvernance sont apparues, invitant de nouveaux acteurs dans la gestion des aires naturelles protégées et remodelant les politiques de conservation à l’échelle internationale comme nationale.Le Mexique n’est pas exempt de ces remises en question et ses nouvelles orientations stratégiques pour la gestion des aires naturelles protégées se concentrent désormais sur la «gouvernance ». De nouveaux programmes d’appui aux communautés ont ainsi été développés pour les inciter à participer à la gestion des ressources naturelles communes. Pour contourner les restrictions liées au statut de Parc National, une vingtaine d’aires naturelles protégées ont ou vont ainsi changer de statut d’ici 2018. Le Parc National Nevado de Toluca représente l’un des premiers espaces protégés à avoir été déclassifié au statut d’Aire de Protection de la Faune et de la Flore, afin de permettre aux 54 communautés agraires réparties sur le territoire de mettre en place des projets productifs et participer in fine à la conservation de l’espace protégé. Mêlant action publique, modèles de gestion locale et dynamiques écologiques, le Nevado de Toluca constitue ainsi un laboratoire in situ qui permet de comprendre comment les notions de gouvernance environnementale et de participation mises en avant dans les programmes gouvernementaux se traduisent sur le terrain. Ce laboratoire permet d’évaluer plus spécifiquement comment les instruments de gestion participative, tels que la gestion forestière communautaire et les paiements pour services environnementaux ont modifié les pratiques locales de gestion et in fine, les dynamiques écologiques forestières. Puis, l’analyse des processus participatifs établis dans le cadre du changement de catégorie et de l’élaboration du plan de gestion permet de mieux comprendre l’appropriation de l’injonction internationale à la participation par le gouvernement mexicain ainsi que ses effets, attendus ou non, sur la gouvernance de l’aire naturelle protégée. Les paiements pour services environnementaux présentés généralement comme une stratégie de conservation plus efficiente que les projets intégrés, semblent être, sur le Nevado de Toluca, des instruments moins performants socialement et écologiquement que la gestion forestière communautaire. Les instruments de gestion participative ont néanmoins en commun de reproduire les injustices sociales du système agraire mexicain. Par ailleurs, malgré des processus participatifs limités, la recatégorisation a conduit à des controverses, alliances et innovations sociotechniques, qui reconfigurent les modalités de gouvernance du territoire. Si le gouvernement ne cède pas pour autant son pouvoir de décision, des arrangements informels viennent s’insérer dans cette nouvelle configuration et constituent des formes de contre-pouvoirs. L’institutionnalisation de la participation ne conduit pas à l’éradication des conflits et à la production d’un consensus. Au contraire, elle met en lumière la dimension agonistique des politiques de conservation. / Under the international context of supporting participation for the co-management of natural resources, new governance arrangements have emerged, inviting new actors in the management of natural protected areas and reshaping conservation policies. Mexico has not been exempted from this process with the new strategic directions for protected natural areas having focused on "governance". New community support programs have been developed to encourage local forest communities to participate in the management of their natural resources. To bypass the restrictions related to the status of a National Park, twenty Mexican natural protected areas have changed or are going to change of status by 2018. The Nevado de Toluca National Park is one of the first protected areas to have been declassified to the status of Wildlife and Flora Area Protection, to allow the 54 agrarian communities established in the territory to implement productive projects and ultimately participate in the conservation of the protected area.Combining public action, local management models and ecological dynamics, the Nevado de Toluca constitutes a laboratory for understanding how the concepts of environmental governance and participation, promoted in government programs, are being applied on the field. This empirical laboratory allows for the evaluation of how participatory management instruments, such as community forest management and payment for environmental services, have modified local management practices and, ultimately, forest ecosystems. Moreover, the analysis of participatory processes, a key part in the process of change in the protection category of the protected natural area, allows us to better understand the appropriation of international premises into effective participation by mechanisms held by the Mexican government. These mechanisms will, in turn, potentially have an effect on the governance of the protected natural area. Payments for environmental services, generally presented as a more efficient conservation strategy than integrated conservation and development projects, seem to be on the Nevado de Toluca, less socially and environmentally efficient than community forest management. However, these two participatory management instruments have reproduced the social injustices of the Mexican agrarian system. Besides, despite limited participatory processes, the reclassification resulted in controversies, alliances and socio-technical innovations that are reshaping the governance of the territory. As a response to the non-transfer of decision-making power by the government, informal arrangements are appearing as a new governance configuration and as a form of countervailing-power. The institutionalization of participation has not led to the eradication of conflict or to a consensus. Instead, it highlights the agonistic dimension of conservation policies.

O estabelecimento e manejo de áreas protegidas constituem importantes estratégias para a conservação e proteção da biodiversidade. Para as Áreas de Proteção Ambiental (APAs), os planos de manejo são essenciais para a consecução dos objetivos. Para melhorar os resultados, alguns países utilizam a Avaliação Ambiental Estratégica (AAE) na elaboração dos planos de manejo. Esta estratégia tem apresentado bons resultados, com a melhora do planejamento e da gestão da área protegida da categoria V da IUCN (equivalente à APA). No Brasil, a AAE não tem regulamentação e os planos de manejo não são submetidos a uma AAE. Para orientar a elaboração dos planos de manejo no Brasil, roteiros metodológicos são utilizados. Contudo, os planos de manejo das APAs têm apresentado uma baixa taxa de implementação. Ao constatar esse cenário, a presente pesquisa propõe diretrizes e procedimentos para a elaboração de planos de manejo de APAs a partir das contribuições da AAE. Para alcançar este objetivo, em um primeiro capítulo, as contribuições da AAE para os planos de manejo da categoria V da IUCN são avaliadas. Este cenário internacional é composto por uma avaliação de oito casos de dois Parques localizados na Escócia, onde os respectivos planos de manejo são submetidos a AAE. Para avaliar as contribuições da AAE para estes planos de manejo, critérios baseados nas diretrizes da IUCN para elaboração dos planos de manejo da categoria V e nas boas práticas da AAE (Diretiva Europeia (2001/42/CE), no Protocolo da UNECE e Therivel (2004) são utilizados. Um segundo capítulo avalia o cenário nacional do planejamento de 17 APAs localizadas nos Estados do Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná, Pernambuco e no Distrito Federal. Para a avaliação do planejamento destas APAs, a metodologia proposta por Faria (2004), que avalia a eficácia da gestão das unidades de conservação, é adaptada para o contexto do planejamento das APAs por meio das recomendações da IUCN. Os resultados do Capítulo I mostram importantes contribuições da AAE para os planos de manejo, a saber: a compatibilização dos objetivos das dimensões ambiental, social e econômica com a minimização dos conflitos entre estas dimensões; a promoção do acompanhamento da qualidade do estoque ambiental; a identificação e a avaliação do impacto do plano de manejo sobre os objetivos e a base de dados da AAE, com a avaliação de como as ações propostas podem afetar o estoque ambiental; e outros. O segundo capítulo apontou os pontos fracos e os fortes do planejamento das APAs avaliadas, como, por exemplo: a baixa execução dos planos de manejo; os planos de manejo apresentam-se com pouca utilidade prática para o dia a dia da gestão; e o monitoramento e a gestão adaptativa são precários. Em contra partida a estes pontos fracos, o zoneamento apresentou-se como uma ferramenta essencial para a gestão e como suporte às tomadas de decisão. A partir da análise do cenário nacional foi possível verificar de que maneira a AAE pode potencializar os pontos fortes e minimizar os pontos fracos. Com isso, verificou-se que a AAE apresenta potenciais contribuições para o planejamento das APAs no Brasil, como: a articulação e minimização dos conflitos entre os objetivos dos planos de manejo com outras ações estratégicas; a inserção da variável ambiental no planejamento do uso do solo; a avaliação de outras alternativas para alcançar os objetivos do plano de manejo; entre outras. Assim, ao considerar o potencial da AAE para os planos de manejo das APAs, verifica-se que a aplicação da AAE para a elaboração dos planos de manejo das APAs é necessária para otimizar potencialidades e minimizar fraquezas. Sendo assim, com base nos resultados e discussões obtidas no capítulo I e II, um terceiro capítulo é apresentado com as diretrizes e os procedimentos para uma base metodológica para a elaboração de planos de manejo de APAs com a avaliação da AAE. / The plans establishment and management for protected areas are key strategies for biodiversity protection and conservation. The management plans are essential to achieving the goals for Environmental Protected Areas (EPA), one of the conservation areas types in Brazil (equivalent to IUCN category V). Some countries use Strategic Environmental Assessment to make management plans and they are getting good results. On the other hand, in Brazil, the management plans preparation applied in EPAs follow a specific methodological guide and the SEA is not applied in the context of protected areas in Brazil. However, the management plan of EPA have shown low implementation rate. In this context, the present research proposes guidelines and procedures for the preparation of EPAs management plans from the contribution of SEA. To achieve this goal, the first chapter evaluates the SEA contribution to management plans of IUCN category V protected areas. This international scenario consists of an evaluation of eight case studies of two parks of the Scotland, where theses management plans are subject to SEA. To evaluate the contributions of SEA for theses management plans, criteria based on the management guidelines for IUCN category V protected areas and on the best practice of SEA (European Directive (2001/42/EC) in the UNECE Protocol and the Therivel author (2004)) are used. The second chapter evaluated the planning of 17 EPAs in Brazil located in the States of Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo, Paraná, Pernambuco and Distrito Federal. The method used to evaluate the planning of these 17 EPAs was proposed by Faria (2004) and adapted for planning context of EPAs in accordance with the recommendations of IUCN. The results show SEA important contributions for plans management, namely: the compatibility of the objectives of environmental, social and economical and the minimizing conflicts between these dimensions; the monitoring the quality of the environment stock; the impact assessment of the management plans on the objectives and baseline SEA, with the evaluation of how the management plan\'s actions can affect the environment stock. As a result of the second chapter showed the weaknesses and the strengths of the planning of the evaluated 17 APAs, such as: the low implementation of management plans; management plans present with little practical use for day to day management; and monitoring and adaptive management are precarious. In contrast to these weaknesses, the zoning is a good tool for the management and support decision-making. Based on these analyzes it observed how SEA can maximize the strengths and minimize the weaknesses. Thus, it was found that the SEA has potential contributions to the EPAs planning in Brazil, as an example: reconcile conflicts between the objectives of the management plan with other strategic actions; the integration of the environmental issue in land use planning; and the evaluation of other alternatives for achieving the objectives of the management plan. Considering the potential of SEA to EPAs management plans, it is found that the application of the SEA for the preparation of the APAs management plans is needed to optimize strengths and minimize weaknesses. Therefore, based on the results obtained and discussions in the first and second chapter, a methodology basis with guidelines and procedures for the preparation of EPAs management plans with the evaluation of SEA is presented.

The objective of this thesis is to develop an ecological economic framework for the assessment and establishment of protected areas (PAs) that are aimed at conserving forests and biodiversity. The framework is intended to be both rigorous and relevant to the decision-making process. Constructivism is adopted as the paradigm guiding the research process of the thesis, after firstly examining also positivist philosophy and ???post-normal??? scientific methodology. The tenets of both ecological and environmental economics are then discussed. An expanded model of human behaviour, which includes facets derived from institutional economics and socioeconomics as well as aspects of neoclassical economics, is outlined. The framework is further developed by considering, from a contractarian view point, the implications of intergenerational equity for biodiversity conservation policies. The issues of intragenerational distribution and allocation are then considered. In this regard, cost-benefit analysis (CBA), as applied to the valuation of forests, PAs, and biodiversity, is critically reviewed. A participatory approach to decision-making, which may also include CBA, is then proposed. The resulting ecological economic framework may be thus summarised: (a) ecosystem use patterns should be chosen on the basis of their sustainability, distributional, and efficiency aspects; (b) systems of PAs should be established in order to achieve minimal intergenerational equity; (c) intragenerational equity requires the correction of the asymmetrical distribution of the costs and benefits arising from the establishment of PAs; (d) the institutional features relevant to the environmental-economic issues being analysed should be considered; and (e) the decision-making process should be participatory and action oriented. The framework is applied to two case studies in Vanuatu. These applications detail (a) stakeholders??? views and trade-offs faced in relation to forest management (b) modes of participatory research and decision-making, (c) forms of compensation that may be adopted in correcting asymmetrical distributions of the costs and benefits of PAs, and (d) institutional influences on ecosystems use and implications for conservation projects. The institutional arrangements developed for the establishment of the PAs are presented. The application of this ecological economic framework has resulted in the formal establishment of one PA and the identification and assessment of five other PAs.

I denna studie beskriver jag problemet hur planering och zonering av destinationer för friluftsliv och ekoturism kan göras. Genom att utveckla och analysera teori och resultat abduktivt har analys och slutsats utvecklats med Kristianstad Vattenrike som utvalt studerat område. Kristianstad Vattenrike är ett av Sveriges fem biosfärområden och sträcker sig nästan över hela Kristianstad kommun med en mångfald av olika naturtyper. Som utnämnt biosfärområde ska man bidra till hållbar utveckling och utveckla området utefter ledorden bevara, utveckla och stödja och planera området i kärnområden, buffertzoner och utvecklingsområden. För att uppnå studiens syfte att abduktivt visa i teoretisk och analytisk växelverkan hur man kan planera och zonera en destination för friluftsliv och ekoturism så har jag valt att beskriva hur planering av friluftsliv kan göras, om zonering, om planering för ekoturism och rural turismutveckling. Dessa har utvecklats abduktivt med utvald kvalitativ metod för analys av en destination, Kristianstad Vattenrike, och hur det planeras i praktiken för eventuell zonering av friluftsliv och ekoturism enligt tre intervjuer och skriftliga källor om Kristianstad Vattenrike. I studiens resultat och analys analyseras tre frågeställningar för syftet: 1) Vilka förutsättningar för friluftsupplevelser och ekoturism erbjuder natur, landskap samt infrastruktur i Kristianstad Vattenrike?, 2) Hur planeras det för friluftsliv och ekoturism i Kristianstad Vattenrike? och 3) Varför ska zonering användas som medel för att planera hållbara destinationer för friluftsliv och ekoturism? Här beskrivs vilket brett utbud av naturtyper som erbjuds i ett friluftsliv som hela tiden utvecklas med behov och efterfrågan på området, men också med produktutveckling. Det beskrivs att de använt bl a plan för att utveckla badplatser inom Kristianstad Vattenrike som kan utvecklas generellt för friluftslivet. För ekoturism görs vissa näringslivssatsningar men inget som direkt lyckas inspirera till ett hållbart ansvarstagande för företag, men ett par uthålliga entreprenörer har lyckats med utveckling av säsonger för upplevelse av Vattenriket över året. Zonering som medel för planering av friluftsliv och ekoturism beskrivs och klargörs att det är en eftersatt modell i Sverige för planering av friluftsliv och ekoturism och även så i Kristianstad Vattenrike. Efter granskade resultat och analyser så dras slutsatser med studien att zonering behöver en svensk uttalad definition för att lättare kommuniceras och förstås för implementering som destinationer som Kristianstad Vattenrike skulle dra fördel av vid planering och zonering för friluftsliv och ekoturism.

No description available.

In recent years landscape-scale fires have occurred in mainland Southeast Asia, including important protected areas (PAs). There has been increasing concern that landscape-scale fires are degrading the seasonally dry evergreen forest (SEF) element of the forest mosaic to more open deciduous forest and savanna, with serious implications for biodiversity conservation. Present management approaches, including fire suppression and prescribed burning, have not been effective managing for landscape-scale fire. Research was undertaken to investigate the occurrence, cause, effect, frequency and predictability of fire in SEF. SEF has the greatest species biodiversity in the forest mosaic and is potentially the most affected by fire, yet little research has been done on fire in SEF in mainland Southeast Asia. Huai Kha Khaeng (HKK) Wildlife Sanctuary in Thailand was selected as the study area. The objectives included: 1) investigate the area of SEF burned in HKK from 1988 to 2002; 2) investigate the conditions for fire in SEF; 3) determine whether the area of SEF in HKK declined as a result of fire; 4) determine the frequency of fire season years between 1984 and 2001 with the conditions for fire spread in SEF; and 5) determine whether there is a significant relationship between pre-fire season drought codes (Keetch-Byram Drought Index (KBDI) and Canadian Drought Code (DC)) and identified SEF fire season years for 1981 to 2003. Methods included: development of a Landsat fire history with associated interviews and reconnaissance field checks; fieldwork lighting test fires and measuring fuel characteristics; remote sensing change detection work using Landsat imagery; generation of a twenty-one year daily relative humidity minimum record for SEF; and logistic regression of the pre-fire season drought code values with identified SEF ‘fire’ and ‘non-fire’ years. Results showed: 1. Extensive areas of SEF have burned, but that Landsat imagery was not suitable for detecting fire in intact SEF. 2. SEF burned in years when there were fires burning adjacent to SEF in mid March and the moisture content of the SEF leaf litter fuel was less than 15%. 3. Fifteen percent of SEF in HKK has been either degraded or converted to deciduous forest forms in 12 years. 4. Conditions for fire spread in SEF occurred four times in 17 consecutive years. 5. A significant relationship exists between both the Keetch-Byram Drought Code (KBDI) and Canadian Drought Code (DC) and the SEF fire years. Implications are that large-scale fires have adversely affected intact SEF in HKK, and that the current damaging situation can be expected to continue. Whereas the extent of burning in intact SEF is not known, the need to manage the situation is immediate. Landscape-scale fires in HKK can be managed by using January 31st drought code values to predict potential large-scale fire years, followed by an aggressive fire suppression campaign in those years. In other years, fires can be allowed to burn without serious threat to the forest mosaic, and should to some extent be encouraged to maintain open deciduous forests and savanna. Additional research is required to determine whether a similar approach can be used for protected areas in other parts of the region.

Environmental positive externalities from public provision, such as the benefits yielded from the public measure of nature conservation, are often not internalized. Potential sub-optimal public service provision can be expected from such a condition, leading to inefficiency, if the benefits at a greater territorial scale are not acknowledged. This holds particularly true for intergovernmental fiscal relations in a decentralizing multi-tiered governmental system. Moreover, in developing countries the fiscal capacities to perform measures of ecological public functions are limited with their fiscal needs for these functions often appearing to outweigh their fiscal capacities. Research at the interface of the economic theory of fiscal federalism, the sustainability concept, and policies related to conservation and the environment is relatively new. Furthermore, in the literature on environmental federalism the emphasis tends to be comparatively less on the benefits of positive environmental externalities. The essential contribution of this study is an extension of this research field that is still in its infancy by applying the specific case of Indonesia as the context, on account of this tropical country‟s ecological significance as well as its recent developments during the fiscal decentralization process. The overall aim of this study is to assess the possibilities of ecological fiscal transfers as a set of instruments in the public sector to internalize environmental externalities. To this end, the study traces the development as well as the current state of intergovernmental fiscal transfers in Indonesia in terms of ecological purposes. On the basis of this knowledge, the study offers new policy perspectives by proposing a number of policy options for ecological fiscal transfers in the context of the functioning fiscal transfer system and institutions between the national and the subnational (province and local) governments as well as among jurisdictions at the same governmental level. The incorporation of an explicit ecological indicator into general-purpose transfers is the first option. The second option is derived from a revenue-sharing arrangement. In this arrangement, two sub-options are proposed: first, shared revenues from taxes are distributed on the basis of the ecological indicator and, second, shared revenues from natural resources are earmarked for environmental purposes. Finally, the third option suggests an extension of existing specific-purpose transfers for the environment. The potential and limitations of the respective options are addressed. Additionally, a short treatment is given to the discourse on the possible mobilization of fiscal resources in the context of tropical deforestation and global climate change. The research concentrates mainly on the first option, namely the incorporation of an ecological indicator into the structure of general-purpose transfer allocation. In order to substantiate an explicit ecological dimension in the transfer, it extends the present area-based approach by introducing a protected area indicator while maintaining the remaining socio-economic indicators in the fiscal need calculation. The parameter values of area-related indicators are adjusted and subject to the properties of the existing formula. The simulation at the provincial level yields the following results. First, more provinces lose rather than gain from the introduced ecological fiscal transfer when compared to the fiscal transfer that they received in the reference fiscal year. Second, on average the winning provinces obtain a higher level of transfer from the introduction of an ecological indicator in the fiscal need calculation. The extent of the average decreases for the losing provinces, however, it is lower compared to the extent of the average gain by their winning counterparts. In terms of spatial configurations of the general-purpose transfer with an ecological indicator, provinces in Papua would benefit most from the new fiscal regime whereas provinces in Java and Sulawesi, with a few exceptions, would suffer a transfer reduction. Kalimantan and Sumatera show a mixed pattern of winning and losing provinces. The analysis on the equalization effects of the general-purpose transfers makes the following important contributions. It suggests that, first, the transfers are equalizing and, second, the introduction of the protected area indicator into the structure of these transfers plays a significant role in the equalizing effect, particularly in the presence of provinces with a very high fiscal capacity and when the area variable is also controlled. All of these new insights are imperative in the design of fiscal policy which intends to integrate explicit ecological aspects into the instruments of intergovernmental fiscal transfers. Since a formula-based fiscal transfer distribution is intrinsically zero-sum, the aforementioned configuration of winning and losing jurisdictions is conceivable. Among other future perspectives, it is the task of further research to explore ecological fiscal transfer instruments and associated measures that on the one hand seek to induce the losing provinces to join their winning counterparts and, on the other hand, are still subject to the requirements of the rational fiscal transfer mechanism.