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Syftet med denna studie är att öka kunskapen om pojkars skrivutveckling mellan årskurserna ett och tre genom att undersöka vad som utmärker texterna och vilken utveckling som sker då de skrivs analogt respektive digitalt. Studien har gjorts med hjälp av både kvantitativa och kvalitativa elevtextanalyser. Tjugo elevtexter har analyserats. Resultatet visar att texterna utvecklas både i textlängd, stavning och disposition särskilt då eleverna skriver med hjälp av digitala skrivverktyg. En jämförelse mellan de två olika kategorierna analoga och digitala texter visar att utvecklingen är större då pojkar skriver med digitala skrivverktyg, vilket tyder på att de gynnas mer av att skriva digitalt än analogt. Resultatet har analyserats utifrån den sociokulturella teorin. / The aim of this study is to increase the knowledge about boys’ writing development in grades one to three by examining what characterizes the texts and what developmental differences there are between handwritten and digitally written texts. Quantitative and qualitative text analyzes was done on twenty student texts. The results shows that the texts develop in length, spelling and disposition particularly when they are written with digital writing tools. A comparison between the handwritten and the digitally written texts   show that the development is greater when boys write with digital writing tools, which indicates that boys benefit more from writing with digital tools. The result has been analyzed with a sociocultural theory.

Enligt nuvarande läroplan ska eleverna ges möjlighet att utveckla sitt skrivande både för hand och med digitala verktyg. Enligt skrivforskning är undervisning i årskurs 4–6 ett område som har ägnats alltför lite uppmärksamhet åt, främst när det gäller digital skrivning eftersom merparten av forskningen fokuserar på elever i de yngre och äldre åldrarna. Syftet med denna studie är att bidra med kunskap om hur olika svensklärare i årskurs 4–6 beskriver att de arbetar med digitala verktyg i skrivundervisningen och deras uppfattningar av digitala skrivverktyg. Frågeställningar som besvarats är: Hur beskriver verksamma svensklärare användandet av digitala verktyg i svenskämnets skrivundervisning? Vilka uppfattningar har olika svensklärare av digitala verktyg i skrivundervisningen? Semistrukturerade intervjuer har genomförts med fyra svensklärare för att bevara studiens frågeställningar. Datamaterialet har analyserats med en fenomenografisk ansats. Resultaten visar att eleverna använder digitala skrivverktyg i hög grad jämfört med att skriva för hand. Dessutom visar utfallet av den fenomenografiska analysen på sju olika sätt att uppfatta digitala skrivverktyg. / According to the current curriculum, students should be given the opportunity to develop their writing both by hand and with digital tools. According to research on writing, teaching in grades 4-6 is an area that has received too little attention, especially when it comes to digital writing, as most of the research focuses on students in the younger and older ages. The purpose of this study is to contribute knowledge about how different Swedish teachers in grades 4-6 describe how they work with digital tools when they teach writing and their perceptions of digital writing tools. The research questions that have been answered are: “How do Swedish teachers describe the use of digital tools in writing instruction?” and “What perceptions do different Swedish teachers have of digital tools in writing instruction?” Semi-structured interviews were conducted with four Swedish teachers to preserve the study's issues. The data material has been analyzed with a phenomenographic approach. The results show that students use digital writing tools to a greater extent compared to writing by hand. In addition, the outcome of the phenomenographic analysis shows seven different ways of perceiving digital writing tools.

This thesis discusses handwriting as a possible text input method for Virtual Reality (VR) with a goal of comparing handwriting with a virtual keyboard input method. VR applications have different approaches to text input and there is no standard for how the user should enter text. Text input methods are important for the user in many cases, e.g when they document, communicate or enter their login information. The goal of the study was to understand how a handwriting input would compare to pointing at a virtual keyboard, which is the most common approach to the problem. A prototype was built using Tesseract for character recognition and Unity to create a basic virtual environment. This prototype was then evaluated with a user study, comparing it to the de facto standard virtual keyboard input method. The user study had a usability and desirability questionnaire approach and also uses Sutcliffe's heuristics for evaluation of virtual environments. Interviews were performed with each test user. The results suggested that the virtual keyboard performs better except for how engaging the input method was. From the interviews a common comment was that the handwriting input method was more fun and engaging. Further applications of the handwriting input method are discussed as well as why the users favored the virtual keyboard method. / Virtual Reality (VR) applikationer har olika tillvägagångssätt för textinmatning och det finns ingen tydlig standard hur användaren matar in text i VR. Textinmatning är viktigt när användaren ska dokumentera, kommunicera eller logga in. Målet med studien var att jämföra en inmatningsmetod baserad på handskrift med det de facto standard virtuella tangentbordet och se vilken inmatningsmetod användarna föredrog. En prototyp som använde handskrift byggdes med hjälp av Tesseract för textinmatning och Unity för att skapa en virtuell miljö. Prototypen jämfördes sedan med det virtuella tangentbordet i en användarstudie. Användarstudien bestod av uppmätt tid samt antal fel, en enkät och en intervju. Enkäten grundades på användarbarhet, önskvärdhet och Sutcliffes utvärderingsheuristik av virtuella miljöer. Resultatet visar att det virtuella tangentbordet presterade bättre, handskriftsmetoden presterade endast bättre på att engagera användaren. Resultatet från intervjuerna styrkte också att handskriftsmetoden var roligare och mer engagerande att använda men inte lika användbar. Framtida studier föreslås i diskussionen samt varför användarna föredrog det virtuella tangentbordet.

Sammanfattning Syftet med studien är att genom en kvalitativ metod undersöka hur lärare relativt deras utbildningsbakgrund och erfarenhet av skolpraktik beskriver balansen mellan handskrift respektive datorskrift i tidig skrivundervisning, och med detta bidra till befintlig forskning inom området. Tre forskningsfrågor har formulerats och för att besvara dem har jag i datainsamlingen använt mig av semistrukturerade individuella intervjuer med utbildade yrkesverksamma lärare. Vid databearbetningen har jag använt en fenomenografisk analysmodell inom ett handlingsteoretiskt ramverk. Resultatet visar att lärare med stöd av sin utbildning men än mer genom beprövad erfarenhet balanserar användandet av handskrift respektive datorskrift i sina klassrum mycket olika men att de motiverar sina val av metoder på samma grunder. Lärare tar stöd i forskning när de designar sin undervisning och uppger att eleverna har god måluppfyllelse för skrivning i slutet av årskurs tre, både gällande handskrift och datorskrift. Lärares egna beskrivningar av deras skrivundervisning är att eleverna genom valda metoder uppmuntras att känna skrivglädje och även om lärandet sker på olika sätt leder processen till att varje enskild elev får lyckas och känna tilltro till sin språkförmåga. Resultatet visar också att lärare anser att samtliga metoder egentligen är bra, att förutsättningen för elever att lyckas nå kursplanens uttalade mål är att läraren är engagerad, tror på sin metod samt lyckas entusiasmera eleverna. / Abstract The purpose of the study is through a qualitative method to investigate how teachers, relative to their educational background and experience of school practice, describe the balance between handwriting and computer writing in early writing instruction, and thereby contribute to existing research in the field. Three research questions have been formulated and to answer them, I have used semi-structured individual interviews with trained professional teachers in the data collection. In the data processing, I have used a phenomenographic analysis model within an action theoretical framework. The results show that teachers, with the support of their education but even more through proven experience, balance the use of handwriting and computer writing in their classrooms very differently, but that they justify their choice of methods on the same grounds. Teachers plan their teaching with support in research and state that the pupils have good goal fulfillment for writing at the end of year three, both in terms of handwriting and computer writing. The teachers' own descriptions of their writing instruction are that the pupils are encouraged to feel the joy of writing through chosen methods, and even if the learning takes place in different ways, the process leads to each individual pupil succeeding and feeling confident in their language ability. The results also show that teachers believe that all methods are really good, that the prerequisite for pupils to succeed in achieving the stated curriculum goals is that the teacher is committed, believes in his method and succeeds in enthusing the pupils.

Nowadays, there are huge collections of handwritten text documents in libraries all over the world. The high demand for these resources has led to the creation of digital libraries in order to facilitate the preservation and provide electronic access to these documents. However text transcription of these documents im- ages are not always available to allow users to quickly search information, or computers to process the information, search patterns or draw out statistics. The problem is that manual transcription of these documents is an expensive task from both economical and time viewpoints. This thesis presents a novel ap- proach for e cient Computer Assisted Transcription (CAT) of handwritten text documents using state-of-the-art Handwriting Text Recognition (HTR) systems. The objective of CAT approaches is to e ciently complete a transcription task through human-machine collaboration, as the e ort required to generate a manual transcription is high, and automatically generated transcriptions from state-of-the-art systems still do not reach the accuracy required. This thesis is centered on a special application of CAT, that is, the transcription of old text document when the quantity of user e ort available is limited, and thus, the entire document cannot be revised. In this approach, the objective is to generate the best possible transcription by means of the user e ort available. This thesis provides a comprehensive view of the CAT process from feature extraction to user interaction. First, a statistical approach to generalise interactive transcription is pro- posed. As its direct application is unfeasible, some assumptions are made to apply it to two di erent tasks. First, on the interactive transcription of hand- written text documents, and next, on the interactive detection of the document layout. Next, the digitisation and annotation process of two real old text documents is described. This process was carried out because of the scarcity of similar resources and the need of annotated data to thoroughly test all the developed tools and techniques in this thesis. These two documents were carefully selected to represent the general di culties that are encountered when dealing with HTR. Baseline results are presented on these two documents to settle down a benchmark with a standard HTR system. Finally, these annotated documents were made freely available to the community. It must be noted that, all the techniques and methods developed in this thesis have been assessed on these two real old text documents. Then, a CAT approach for HTR when user e ort is limited is studied and extensively tested. The ultimate goal of applying CAT is achieved by putting together three processes. Given a recognised transcription from an HTR system. The rst process consists in locating (possibly) incorrect words and employs the user e ort available to supervise them (if necessary). As most words are not expected to be supervised due to the limited user e ort available, only a few are selected to be revised. The system presents to the user a small subset of these words according to an estimation of their correctness, or to be more precise, according to their con dence level. Next, the second process starts once these low con dence words have been supervised. This process updates the recogni- tion of the document taking user corrections into consideration, which improves the quality of those words that were not revised by the user. Finally, the last process adapts the system from the partially revised (and possibly not perfect) transcription obtained so far. In this adaptation, the system intelligently selects the correct words of the transcription. As results, the adapted system will bet- ter recognise future transcriptions. Transcription experiments using this CAT approach show that this approach is mostly e ective when user e ort is low. The last contribution of this thesis is a method for balancing the nal tran- scription quality and the supervision e ort applied using our previously de- scribed CAT approach. In other words, this method allows the user to control the amount of errors in the transcriptions obtained from a CAT approach. The motivation of this method is to let users decide on the nal quality of the desired documents, as partially erroneous transcriptions can be su cient to convey the meaning, and the user e ort required to transcribe them might be signi cantly lower when compared to obtaining a totally manual transcription. Consequently, the system estimates the minimum user e ort required to reach the amount of error de ned by the user. Error estimation is performed by computing sepa- rately the error produced by each recognised word, and thus, asking the user to only revise the ones in which most errors occur. Additionally, an interactive prototype is presented, which integrates most of the interactive techniques presented in this thesis. This prototype has been developed to be used by palaeographic expert, who do not have any background in HTR technologies. After a slight ne tuning by a HTR expert, the prototype lets the transcribers to manually annotate the document or employ the CAT ap- proach presented. All automatic operations, such as recognition, are performed in background, detaching the transcriber from the details of the system. The prototype was assessed by an expert transcriber and showed to be adequate and e cient for its purpose. The prototype is freely available under a GNU Public Licence (GPL). / Serrano Martínez-Santos, N. (2014). Interactive Transcription of Old Text Documents [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/37979