This study investigates, theoretically and empirically, the role of animacy in the development of gender systems. The theoretical background is a grammaticalisation approach to language change. Concerning gender, this presupposes that classifications begin as semantic distinctions in the realm of animacy with flexible, contextually based agreement between the gender-marking elements. This kind of gender is called contextual gender. In the course of time, these classifications will spread into other areas, they become desemanticized and the agreement relation grammaticalizes into one of government where the inherent gender of the head noun controls the gender of the agreeing elements, irrespective of contextual factors When this leads to a great number of violations of the principles of contextual agreement in the realm of animacy, a new cycle of semantic classification will begin, creating layers of classifications. For German and Swedish two different layers are discerned respectively. The empirical starting point of this project was the observation of two opposite developments in the area of female person reference in Germany and Sweden. As a consequence of feminist critique of language, mainly targeted at the use of socalled masculine generics, in Germany the use of female gender-specific nouns increased substantially, the major means being female derivation with –in, so-called motion. Although similar means for female derivation exist in Swedish, i.e. -inna and -ska, the number of derivations used is decreasing. In order to isolate socio-cultural and historical facts from language-internal mechanisms behind the diverging tendencies, a historical sketch of the development of equal rights, of language criticism and of the development of the female suffixes is drawn for the respective countries. It is obvious, that the German strategy to achieve gender-fair language use is established by making women visible by means of motion, while in Sweden the use of gender-neutral forms for a long period of time has been regarded as a sign of equality. This ‘neutral’ use of former masculine and male-specific forms has been made possible by the merging of the two nominal genders masculine and feminine into uter (Sw. utrum). A contrastive study of comparable German and Swedish newspaper texts shows that the lack of motion in Swedish is partly compensated by composition and attribution with gender-specific lexemes. Still, the 64% gender-specific noun phrases in Swedish cannot compare with the 95% in German. But the use of gender-specific forms for well over half of the person references calls into doubt the general opinion shared by most Swedes that Swedish has a gender-neutral person reference system. Linguistic asymmetry persists as long as gender-specification is restricted to one half of the gendered population, whatever the means for specification. The almost exclusive use of gender-specific forms in German is seen as indicative of a grammaticalisation process. Haspelmaths invisible hand explanation of grammaticalisation is used to show how the development of -in in German fulfils just about every requirement on a grammaticalisation process – language-external as well as -internal – while -inna and -ska neither are promoted sufficiently by the speech community nor does there exist a paradigm that could accommodate them. In contrast to Swedish, where the suffixes remain strictly derivational, it is demonstrated that -in is turning into an inflectional marker. The German gender sub-system for person reference is developing into a semantically based system with genderflexible person denominations. A study of the pronouns agreeing with non-personal-agents in a parallel corpus of EU-documents shows that other aspects than purely referential or formal ones impinge on the choice of agreement forms. Non-personal-agents in certain contexts expose both agency and intentionality, which turns them into suitable agreement partners for animate pronouns. In Swedish, all animate pronouns are sexed, leaving a “Leerstelle” for these inanimate but agentive and intentional referents. In German, this problem is covered by the polysemy of the personal pronouns. Non-personal-agents are shown to be one possiblesource for the spreading of a linguistic innovation from the realm of animacy into inanimate contexts via semantic and thematic roles that share important features with animates proper. The last study makes use of different types of German monolingual corpora in order to investigate the agreement between inanimate nouns with female inherent gender – from non-personal-agents and abstracts to concrete nouns – and agent nouns which can potentially expose agreement by female derivation. Although the results are rather heterogeneous, they allow the formulation of the hypothesis that agreement is more likely to occur with nouns for which a metaphorical bridge to stereotypical conceptions of femininity can be constructed and that key collocations with high frequency such as die Kirche als Trägerin or die DNA als Trägerin der Erbinformation contribute significantly to the spread of the agreement pattern.

Språk både reflekterar och påverkar vår världssyn. Hur mottas då försök från gräsrotsnivå att introducera ett könsneutralt pronomen i ett språk som speglar den i samhället rådande könsdikotomin? Syftet med denna uppsats är att utifrån Hirdmans och Butlers respektive genusteorier undersöka vilken inställning användare på ett stort svenskt internetforum har till det könsneutrala personliga pronomenet hen. Undersökningen genomfördes med hjälp av en internetbaserad enkät som besvarades av cirka 150 personer. För att analysera svaren till de slutna frågorna tog vi hjälp av statistikprogrammet SPSS och för att bearbeta de öppna frågorna har vi använt oss av en tematisk analys. Resultatet visar på starkt polariserade åsikter runt hen, där ungefär lika många personer är för som emot ordet. Bland dem som är emot användandet av hen uppfattar de flesta att syftet med ordet är att skapa ett könslöst samhälle, medan hen-förespråkarna ser det som ett komplement till hon och han. Vi har även kunnat se att det finns ett visst samband mellan individens attityd till hen och dennes syn på kön och genus, vilket bekräftar vår hypotes om att det finns en sådan korrelation. / Language reflects our worldview as well as shapes it. How is grass roots level attempts to introduce a gender neutral pronoun received in a society which reflects a gender dichotomy? The purpose of this study is to, inspired by Hirdman’s and Butler’s respective theories on gender, explore what attitudes users of a large Swedish internet community have towards the gender neutral pronoun hen. The current work was performed using an Internet-based survey which was completed by roughly 150 individuals. To analyze the closed ended questions of the survey we used SPSS, whereas the open ended questions were processed with the aid of a thematic method of analysis. The results indicate that the opinions concerning hen are largely polarized, with about as many respondents pro as against the usage of the word. Among those who are against using hen the majority perceive that creating a “genderless” society is the main purpose of the word, whereas most of the word’s intercessors think  that the purpose is to pose as a complement to the pronouns han and hon (he and she).  The study shows that there is a certain connection between the respondent’s attitude towards hen and his/her view on gender, which confirms our hypothesis that there is such a correlation.

In Modern English, EACH OTHER and ONE ANOTHER are morphologically fixed as reciprocal compound pronouns. The reciprocal construction has been developed and used in every period of the English language. The main purpose of this study, nevertheless, was to investigate the ways to express the notion of reciprocity in Middle English and Early Modern English.The morphological analyses of the citations demonstrate that Middle English employed a great variety of head words and phrases than does Modern English in reciprocal structures. EACH, EITHER, EVERY, and ONE most frequently appear as head words of Middle English reciprocal construction, and OTHER usually occurs as a subsequent elements. OTHER, however, may also serve as the head word. Middle English also permits EACH MAN, ILLC MANN, EACH ONE, ILLC ONE, EVERY MAN, EVERY ONE, and THE ONE to function as head phrases. In Early Modem English, Malory employs various structures in his writings, but he prefers EITHER, EITHER OF (US, YOU, THEM) as the head of reciprocal patterns. Shakespeare, nevertheless, more frequently uses ONE as the head word.In Middle English, according to the data, the reciprocal sequence (EACH, EITHER, ONE) / OTHER stands in subject position in twenty examples between c. 1200 - c.1450. Rarely, however, do the pronouns function as a compound subject (subject / complement). The underlying structure of the sentence pattern SOV, nevertheless, is SVO. The need to rhyme, therefore, may cause the change of the word order in the period.(EACH, EITHER, EVERY, ONE, OTHER) may be compounded with the pronoun OTHER in forty examples between c. 1285 - c.1513, but the sequence most frequentlyoccur as direct / indirect object. (EACH, EITHER, EVERY, ONE, OTHER) + OTHER functions as object of preposition in four examples between c.1328 - c.1440.The modem usage of EACH OTHER as a compound object is established in Early Modern English learned, imaginative texts, and the use of ONE ANOTHER as the compound direct object and object of preposition are being established in that period.Since the rules for compounding reciprocal pronouns and for their morpho-syntatic features were not restrictly established before the time of Shakespeare, OTHER could function as an uninflected, separable pronoun in Middle English. In position except modification. the development of OTHER as a nominal occured after Middle English except where the head word is ONE. In Modem English, OTHER must be used as a nominal if the reciprocal pronouns are not compounded. / Department of English

Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-14T12:43:12Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 631815 bytes, checksum: eca695e6fc2473e1ad7438be8398b261 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2014-08-14 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / This work deals with the oblique pronouns o(s), a(s), me, te, starting from a syntactic traditional analysis for a discursive approach based on the concepts of the functional linguistic of the prototipicity, speech transitivity (Hopper and Thompson, 1980), discursive relevance and textual-discursive function (Matos, 2008). The data analysed were extracted of the corpus composed of three volumes of narratives narrated by Luiza Tereza, being this corpus part of the acquis of the Paraibana popular culture present in the NUPPO (Núcleo de Pesquisa e Documentação da Cultura Popular/Centre of Research and Documentation of the Popular Culture). It has been found that the study of the grammatical categories is not valid if made in an isolate way without observing, for example, speech transitivity that signal the syntactic function involved. It is important to consider the prototypical function so that the analysis be done on what is regular and in doing so the dimension of the results obtained is more comprehensive, as the regular is more frequent, in other words, more recurring, facilitating the more efficient comprehension as a function of the study. It was also confirmed the hypothesis that the pronoun me listed for analysis is part of the narratives of high transitivity level, being more to figure than to background. The prototypical function of the pronoun me is the function of the object, being this direct or indirect and in both high discursive transitivity is presented. / Este trabalho trata dos pronomes oblíquos o(s), a(s), me, te, partindo de uma análise sintática tradicional para uma abordagem discursiva fundamentada nos conceitos de prototipicidade, transitividade oracional (Hopper e Thompson, 1980), relevância discursiva e função textualdiscursiva oriundos da Linguística funcional (Matos, 2008). Os dados analisados foram do extraídos do corpus composto de três volumes de narrativas narrados por Luzia Tereza, sendo este corpus parte do acervo da cultura popular paraibana presente no NUPPO (Núcleo de Pesquisa e Documentação da Cultura Popular). Verificou-se que o estudo das categorias gramáticas não é válido se feito isoladamente, sem observar, por exemplo, a transitividade oracional que sinaliza a função sintática envolvida. É importante considerar a função prototípica para que a análise seja feita em torno do que é regular e, assim, a dimensão dos resultados obtidos é mais abrangente, visto que o regular é mais frequente, ou seja, mais recorrente, facilitando a compreensão mais eficaz da função em estudo. Também foi confirmada a hipótese de que o pronome me elencado para a análise está presente nas narrativas em um nível de alta transitividade, estando mais para figura do que para fundo. A função sintática prototípica desse pronome é a de objeto, sendo este direto ou indireto e, em ambos os casos, apresenta alta transitividade discursiva.

Cette thèse étudie la polysémie du pronom on dans une perspective contrastive français-arabe. L’objectif de cette étude consiste à résoudre le problème de l’irrégularité dans la traduction arabe de on. Ce problème provient d’une variété d’emplois contradictoires de on en français, d’où sa polysémie. La polysémie de on a été examinée d’après le modèle interprétatif de la psychomécanique du langage de Gustave Guillaume complété par une approche énonciative. Ce cadre théorique a révélé comment, par une remontée vers l’ontogénèse de on, ce dernier est devenu un pronom intra-verbal malgré son origine substantivale. Par ailleurs, il est fait usage du Tenseur Binaire Radical (TBR) qui représente le signifié de puissance de on en langue. Ce signifié de puissance est illustré par un double mouvement qui va d’une pluralité indéfinie à une pluralité indéterminée, le point de transition étant moi-locuteur. Ainsi, le signifié de puissance de on a permis d’identifier et d’ordonner 13 signifiés d’effet, en tenant compte de la catégorie du nombre et de la notion de personne. Ces critères permettent de distinguer entre les valeurs de la 3e personne, celles de la personne 4 et les valeurs discursives d’un côté, et les effets de sens de l’autre. Mais pour traduire on, l’analyse contrastive du corpus bilingue a révélé que les traducteurs privilégient plutôt les effets de sens véhiculés par ce pronom. L’étude se termine donc par une proposition d’un ensemble de correspondants arabes pour chacun des 13 signifiés d’effet de on. Enfin, pour que la traduction de ce pronom soit adéquate, il faut que le groupe on + verbe soit considéré comme une unité de traduction. / This dissertation examines the polysemy of the pronoun on from a contrastive, French-Arabic perspective. The objective of the study is to resolve a problem of irregularity in most Arabic translations of on. This problem seems to be rooted in the variety of contradictory usage of on in French which reflects its polysemy. The polysemy of on was examined through Gustave Guillaume’s interpretative model of psychomechanics of language. Then, an enunciative approach was employed to complement the theoretical framework. As a result, the ontogenesis of on revealed how the pronoun became intra-verbal, despite its substantive etymology. Moreover, the study employed the Radical Binary Tensor that represents the potential meaning of on in tongue. This potential meaning is illustrated by a double movement: from an indefinite plurality to an indeterminate plurality, where the point of transition is moi-locuteur. Further, the obtained potential meaning facilitated the identification, and ordination, of 13 effective meanings for on by taking into consideration the notion of person and the category of number. Those criteria distinguish between the values of the 3rd person, person 4, and the discursive values on one hand, and the expressive effects on the other. The contrastive analysis of a bilingual corpus revealed a preference on the part of translators to deal with on based on its expressive effects. Finally, the study proposed a set of Arabic correspondents to each of on’s 13 effective meanings. Ultimately, the research concluded that an accurate translation of on can only be possible by considering the group on + verb as a unit of translation.

[pt] Um dos aspectos indiscutivelmente relevantes para o ensino do português como segunda língua para estrangeiros (PL2-E) é a multiplicidade das formas e dos pronomes de tratamento. Em relação à segunda pessoa, o português apresenta um sistema de tratamento mais complexo que o sistema dicotômico formal/informal de várias línguas. Sendo assim, o objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar e descrever o uso dos pronomes de tratamento o senhor/a senhora e você por meio de entrevistas realizadas com falantes nativos do português brasileiro. Para tal, consideramos os fatores sócio-culturais envolvidos na escolha destes pronomes e os contextos que condicionam as escolhas dos informantes. Buscamos também verificar a possibilidade de uma negociação de tratamento e como ela acontece. Foram fundamentais para este estudo os conceitos advindos da Sociolinguística Interacional, da Antropologia Cultural e do Interculturalismo. Ao final de nossa análise, concluímos haver uma tendência a minimizar poder e distância nas relações interpessoais, passando os interactantes a estabelecer relações baseadas na proximidade e na informalidade, o que justifica um maior número de ocorrências referentes ao emprego do pronome você que ao de o senhor/a senhora. / [en] One of the incontestably relevant aspects to the teaching of Portuguese as a Second Language (PL2-E) is the multiplicity of pronouns and forms of address. In relation to the second person, the Portuguese language has a more complex system of address than the dichotomous formal/informal system of many other languages. Therefore, our aim is to describe the use of the pronouns of address o senhor/a senhora vs você through the analysis of the data gathered by means of interviews with native speakers of Brazilian Portuguese. To do so we considered the sociocultural aspects which influence the choice between o senhor/a senhora or você as well as different contexts. We also intended to verify how a possible negotiation of address occurs. The concepts from Interactional Sociolinguistics, Cultural Anthropology and Interculturalism were of paramount importance to this research. Finally, it was concluded that there is a tendency towards the minimization of power and distance in interpersonal relationships, leading to intimacy and informality, which explains the more frequent use of você in comparison with o senhor/a senhora.

Submitted by Edileide Reis (leyde-landy@hotmail.com) on 2013-05-13T15:27:51Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Maria Silva.pdf: 1245786 bytes, checksum: 47d4412aab645a8affa79e9db5506aad (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Alda Lima da Silva(sivalda@ufba.br) on 2013-06-04T17:28:02Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Maria Silva.pdf: 1245786 bytes, checksum: 47d4412aab645a8affa79e9db5506aad (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2013-06-04T17:28:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Maria Silva.pdf: 1245786 bytes, checksum: 47d4412aab645a8affa79e9db5506aad (MD5) Previous issue date: 2004 / Esta dissertação analisa, numa perspectiva sociolingüística, as estratégias de realização do objeto direto anafórico no dialeto rural afro-brasileiro, focalizando as variantes que distanciam o português do Brasil (PB) e o português europeu (PE): a categoria vazia e o uso do pronome lexical (ele/ela). Parte-se do pressuposto de que as diferenças existentes entre o PB e o PE se devem, não só a motivações internas à estrutura da língua, mas, principalmente, a motivações externas (sócio-históricas) decorrentes do contato entre línguas ocorrido, quando no Brasil conviveram os portugueses, os índios e os negros trazidos da África como escravos. Buscando avaliar o quanto o contato entre línguas afetou o desenvolvimento histórico da língua portuguesa no Brasil, o foco da pesquisa dirige-se para as comunidades rurais afrobrasileiras isoladas, do interior do Estado da Bahia. Por terem-se mantido até bem recentemente em relativo isolamento, tais comunidades devem guardar não só costumes culturais bastante antigos, mas também padrões lingüísticos, que permitam encontrar evidências de processos de variação e mudança resultantes do contato entre línguas. Dessa forma, o corpus analisado reuniu quatro comunidades localizadas em regiões diversas do Estado da Bahia, em que houve grande concentração de mão-de-obra escrava, a saber: Helvécia, no extremo-sul da Bahia; Rio de Contas, na Chapada Diamantina; Cinzento, no semi-árido; e Sapé, no Recôncavo Baiano. / Salvador

This thesis deals with a comparison of relative clauses in Czech and Spain language. The first part is devoted to the theoretical definition of the term "relative clause" in both languages and their comparison. In the second part the author performed a linguistic analysis of the Czech and Spanish comparable text with focuse on identification of the grammatical phenomena described in the theoretical part. This thesis is written in Czech language and includes a summary in Spanish.

COELHO, Tatiana Maria Silva. A sínclise dos substantivos pessoais átonos no português oral culto de Fortaleza: aspectos sociolinguísticos. 2003. 98f. – Dissertação (Mestrado) – Universidade Federal do Ceará, Departamento de Letras Vernáculas, Programa de Pós-graduação em Linguística, Fortaleza (CE), 2003. / Submitted by Márcia Araújo (marcia_m_bezerra@yahoo.com.br) on 2014-08-19T13:39:06Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2003_dis_tmscoelho.pdf: 420647 bytes, checksum: 8695c74bc5781062615ec6587ce35166 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Márcia Araújo(marcia_m_bezerra@yahoo.com.br) on 2014-08-19T16:28:35Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2003_dis_tmscoelho.pdf: 420647 bytes, checksum: 8695c74bc5781062615ec6587ce35166 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-08-19T16:28:35Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2003_dis_tmscoelho.pdf: 420647 bytes, checksum: 8695c74bc5781062615ec6587ce35166 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2003 / This dissertation investigates the relation between extra linguistic factors (sex, age and register) and the intercalation of a pronoun in a word in PORCUFORT. From this analysis of this corpus was evident that such factors do not influence the personal substantives’ behavior. This work is also about a review of many opinions from studies about features that mark a specific group of words named pronouns by traditional grammarians and many linguists. We tried to analyze a great number of opinions to make sure in which measurement the pronominal class is characterized, especially personal pronouns. A point to emphasize is the use of deixis as a pronominal mark, that is, we consider that all the words that belong to this class works as signals, of discursive and pragmatic entities. We adopted, then, a new perspective with base in Lhorach, who undoes the idea of the existence of an autonomous class of pronouns, redistributing the terms that belongs traditionally to this class into noun and adjective. The personal pronouns would be personal substantives in this approach. / A presente dissertação investiga a relação entre fatores extralingüísticos (sexo, idade e registro) e a sínclise pronominal no PORCUFORT. A partir da análise desse corpus foi constatado que tais fatores em nada influenciam o comportamento dos substantivos clíticos. É também preocupação desse trabalho fazer uma revisão das diversas opiniões de importantes estudiosos sobre os traços que marcam um grupo específico de vocábulos denominado pelos gramáticos tradicionais e por vários lingüistas de pronome. Procuramos analisar um bom número de opiniões para vermos em que medida se caracteriza a classe pronominal em especial a dos chamados pronomes pessoais. Ponto a objetar é a utilização da dêixis como marca pronominal, isto é, considerar que todos os vocábulos dessa classe se comportam como sinais, entidades discursivo-pragmáticas. Concluímos ser a dêixis insuficiente para englobar toda uma classe. Adotamos, assim, uma nova perspectiva com base em Lhorach que desfaz a idéia de existência de uma classe de pronomes autônoma, redistribuindo os vocábulos pertencentes tradicionalmente a esta em substantivo e adjetivo. Os pronomes pessoais seriam nesta abordagem, substantivos pessoais.

Denna studie är en korbusbaserad undersökning som behandlar distributionen av olika funktioner hos pronomenet hen i sociala medier mellan 2012 och 2017. Sedan 2012, året då en stor debatt om hen briserade, har pronomenet börjat ta plats i svenska språket. Med data från korpusarna Bloggmix, Twittermix, Flashback och Familjeliv hämtade från Språkbankens textsamling med hjälp av sökverktyget Korp, analyseras totalt 186 hen. Data har taggats i åtta kategorier: könsöverskridande hen, anonymiserande hen och okänt kön, indefinit och generiskt hen, meta-hen, substantiverat hen, icke-mänskligt, otydligt och övrigt. Resultatet visar att den dominerande funktionen hos hen är anonymiserande hen och okänt kön med totalt 47%. Den andra mest förekommande användningsformen i materialet är generiskt hen med totalt 28%. Funktionen Meta-hen täcker totalt 13%. Detta resultat tyder på att pronomenet debatteras mindre i sociala medier i jämförelse med resultat från tidigare forskning där meta-hen visade sig vara den dominerade användningen under tidigare år (Ledin & Lyngfelt, 2013: 168). Istället är det mer vanligt att använda hen för att till exempel anonymisera, eller så är det inte möjligt att yttra sig om könsidentiteten hos en person då könet är okänt, och att det även istället är mer vanligt att använda pronomenet för att generalisera i olika sammanhang. Ett ytterligare resultat är att användningen av hen har ökat i både Bloggmix och Familjeliv fram till 2016, i Flashback noteras en trend av användningen som går både upp och ner över tid, och i Twittermix minskar användningen över tid. / This thesis is a corpus-based study, which aims to investigate both the distribution and function of the pronoun hen in social media platforms, during the time period 2012-2017. Since 2012, the year when a broad debate sparked regarding the use of hen, the pronoun has increasingly been incorporated into the Swedish language. By using the search-tool Korp, and the collection of texts provided by Språkbanken, 186 occurrences of hen have been analyzed. These occurrences were extracted from various social media corpora, specifically Bloggmix, Familjeliv, Flashback and Twittermix. The data were tagged into eight different categories: Könsöverskridande (Non-gender), Anonymising and Unknown-sex, Indefinite and generic, Meta, Nominalised, Non-human, Unclear and Other. The results show that the dominant function of hen are the anonymized- and unknown-hen, comprising up to 47% of all cases. Also, the second most prominent function is the Generic-hen, with a total of 28%. Finally, the function Meta-hen, covers about 13% of all occurrences. These result indicate that the pronoun is debated less in social media compared to results from previous studies where Meta-hen proved to be the dominant use in previous years (Ledin & Lyngfelt, 2013: 168). Instead it is more common to use hen in order to anonymize, for example, or when it is not possible to comment on the gender identity of a person when the sex is unknown, and that it is more common to generalize in different contexts instead. Moreover, it can be noted that the use of hen had increased on both Bloggmix and Familjeliv until 2016. Conversely, the data shows that its use on Flashback fluctuated over time, and showed a constant decline on Twittermix.