本論文評量臺灣學生國中三年對英文重音與語調的學習成果，並探討造成學生學習困難的原因。五，名高一學生唸相同兩篇對話和十名母語為英語的外藉人士比較。結果顯示可暗示說話者態度的調型對學生最難，一些特殊句型的調型次之，而普通句型的升、降調最容易。重音方面則以牽涉到英文節奏和前後文的重音型較難。 　　經由對比分析，發現英文本身的問題和中英文的差異都對學習不利。英文本身的問題包括重音與語調的多變性和書面表示方式的不足。中英文的差異包括音調的範圍、語調對單字發音的影響、訊息焦點的表示方式、態度的表示方式、音調的高低度、以及中文調型的干擾。另外，由五十位國中老師和五十位學生所回答的問卷結果也顯示一些教學上的因素也會造成某種程度的干擾。 　　文末對教學方法、教材以及老師和學生的教學均有建議，期望對英語教學的更臻完善有所幫助。 / This thesis evaluates Taiwan junior high school students' performances in English stress and intonation and uncovers some reasons causing students' learning difficulties.　Compared against ten native speakers' performances, forty students' performances in reading two dialogues are evaluated.　The results show that the contours with attitudinal meanings are more difficult for students than the contours of special grammatical constructions, which in turn are more difficult than ordinary falling and rising contours.　And students have more difficulties in the stress patterns involving English rhythm and discourse knowledge than those that do not. 　　Through contrastive analysis, we find intralingual and interlingual factors interfering with students' learning. Intralingual factors include the variability of English stress and intonation, and the deficiency in their representation.　Interlingual factors include the scope of pitch, the influence of intonation on citation forms, expressions of focus, expressions of attitudes, ranges of pitch, and interference from Mandarin contours.　Moreover, the results of two sets of questionnaires answered by fifty teachers and fifty students show some pedagogical factors also come into play. 　　Suggestions for teaching methods, teaching materials, teachers, and students are also given with a view to helping improve English teaching and learning.

飲食除了作為人類維生的基本需求，也是文化發展的重要一環。甚至隨著人類經濟的發展與文化的提升，飲食已由維生的基本需求與口腹之欲的滿足，更發展到社交、禮儀、養身、修心之美學境界。俄羅斯作為一個歷史悠久的國家，隨著歷史的演進，飲食文化雖然不斷在變遷，也保存不少固有傳統。因此，本論文結合文化與語言的知識，從宏觀角度論述出俄羅斯民族之飲食美學觀。在文化面，本論文將介紹影響俄羅斯飲食文化之形成的地理條件和歷史發展。在語言方面，我們將飲食相關的俄語用語（諺語、俗語、成語、詞組等）與普希金作品有關飲食場景的部分討論，整理並歸納出俄羅斯飲食的民族特色。

本論文嘗試分析王禎和小說《玫瑰玫瑰我愛你》人物對白中的語碼轉換現象 ，探討文本中轉碼的社會語用策略與功能、轉碼的結構形式、以及語種變換的類別。希望藉由本研究歸納出的台灣華人語碼轉換的規律性與通則，為日後華語文教學與教材編撰上提供參考價值。 本論文的分析框架建立在Gumperz (1972,1982) 提出的情境型語碼轉換 (Situational code-switching )、隱喻型語碼轉換(Metaphorical code-switching)、對話對話型語碼轉換(Conversational code-switching)，Poplack(1980)提出的句間語碼轉換(Inter-sentential switching)、句內語碼轉換(Intra-sentential switching)、附加語碼轉換(Tag switching)，以及Leech(1983)的語篇修辭(Textual Rhetoric)與人際修辭(Interpersonal Rhetoric )的觀念。 總計文本中的轉碼語料共有282筆。研究結果如下列所述。首先，文本中的語種變換類型有：國語轉閩南語、國語轉英語、閩南語轉國語、閩南語轉日語、閩語南轉客語、英語轉國語。分析結果顯示台灣華人以國語轉入其他語言的比例最高(占63.4%)，其次是以閩南語轉入其他語言(占30.8%)。相較之下，以其他語言母體語或鑲崁語的轉碼比例偏低。另外，國語和閩南語之間的互轉是文本中台灣華人最常使用的語碼轉換方式，其主要因素與台灣的政治、族群和社會變遷相關。 在句間語碼轉換(Inter-sentential switching)、句內語碼轉換(Intra-sentential switching)與附加語碼轉換(Tag switching)中，句間語碼轉換占80.0%比例最高，句內語碼轉換居次(占16.0%)，可能是因為句間語碼轉換較不像句內語碼轉換，需要較多文法上的技巧問題，所以對人們來說比較容易。附加語碼轉換在文本出現的比例僅占4.3%。 在情境型語碼轉換 (Situational code-switching )、隱喻型語碼轉換(Metaphorical code-switching)與對話型語碼轉換(Conversational code-switching)中，隱喻型語碼轉換高達80.1%；而情境型和對話型語碼轉換總共僅占19.9%，其中情境型語碼轉換占12.1%，對話型語碼轉換占7.8%。在情境型轉碼中，國語轉閩南語占3.2%，國語轉英語占5.7%，閩南語轉國語占2.5%。隱喻型語碼轉換中，以國語轉閩南語占41.8%及閩南語轉國語占23.0%比例最高。 本研究發現文本中轉碼被運用於語篇修辭的比例略高於人際修辭。就語篇修辭而言，分析結果顯示語碼轉換在語篇修辭中計有：訊息有無(添加訊息、詢問)、全面瞭解(解釋、糾正、確認、澄清)、比較、話題轉換(主題、段落)及指涉(具體、替代)等五類11項功能策略。文本中的語碼轉換大部分是為了要對訊息做入碼運作(Processibility Principle)，占34.0%，表達原則(Expressivity Principle)占29.2% ，清晰原則(Clarity Principle)占25.9% ，經濟原則(Economy Principle)占10.9%。 語碼轉換在人際修辭社會情境中的使用大多是為社會面向的目的(占人際修辭總語料的87.4%)，比場合面向(12.6%)高出非常多，顯示在人際修辭中，轉碼主要的目的是處理人際關係，而不是應付場合條件之所需。在社會面向中，語碼轉換所占的比例多寡順序為：社會標記(41.5%) > 態度(26.7%) > 社會距離的順應調整(19.3%) 。 小說中的語言與文化對於華語教學而言是現成有趣的教材。所以筆者認為小說文本應可運用在華語教學上當作教材使用，以教授外籍學生華語文本賞析的技巧，並了解小說作者或文本人物言語行為的真正社會語用意圖。 關鍵詞：文本分析、語碼轉換、混碼與夾碼、社會語用、華語文教學

University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Chinese

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本論文探討「很X」構式在口語語料中的語意變化，透過「很X」在口語語料庫及電視節目語料中的分布，分析「很X」語法化及詞彙化的情形，藉由語言學的角度，提供未來華語教學實用多樣的內涵。 過去相關文獻多集中於構式、詞類的分析，較少使用口語語料作為研究素材，而言談過程常是造成語言變化的重要因素，因此本文應用語法化及詞彙化理論，探討政治大學口語語料庫及公視節目「爸媽囧很大」中「很X」的分布情形，分析詞類結構、句法範疇及字數三個方面。兩個語料來源中「很X」的分布情形一致，「很」的語法化一直演變，「X」可擔任的範疇向其他詞類擴張，也可以由單詞、詞組、句子等字數不同的單位擔任。「很X」也藉由詞彙化持續演變，「很X」凝結為一個單位，用以修飾其他詞組或是句子。「很」除了保有表示高程度的副詞功能外，亦開始具有突顯「X」特性的功能，與特定詞類搭配時，「很X」必須一起出現才足以表達說話者的意思，這些現象顯示了「很X」的主觀性有逐漸提升的趨勢。本文以語法化和詞彙化理論來分析討論口語語料中「很X」的句法語意變化以及分布情形，研究結果可提供華語教學者進行相關學術研究、編撰教材以及實地教學的素材來源。 / The study aims to investigate the syntactic and semantic changes of hěn X constructions in spoken copora. Many studies have discussed the history of hěn, the development of its degree adverb function and the host expansion of X. To understand the gradual changes of hěn X in daily usages, the study, extracting the data from the NCCU Corpus of Spoken Chinese and Taiwan Public Telivision show, examines the grammaticalization and lexicalization patterns of hěn X . Several findings are found. First, the syntactic and semantic distributions of both sources are consistent. While adjectives and stative verbs still claim the majority of X, new categories of words are discovered, showing host expansion of hěn X. Second, not only words but also phrases and clauses can play the role of X. The flexibility of the length of hěn X demonstrates the gradual grammaticalization of hěn.On the other hand, hěn X can also be used as a unit to modify other grammatical constittuents, showing lexicalization process is also happening regarding. In particular, when hěn X is regarded as a unit, hěn appears to be obligatory, not only indicating degree but also highlighting the characteristics of X. The analysis of the spoken materials also clearly demonstrates that subjectivity is increasing in hěn X. These findings of hěn X in spoken copora can be applied to linguistic studies and Mandarin teaching.

本研究主要探討台灣漢語兒童在日常家庭對話中，對父母行使請求時的語言表現及禮貌現象，以了解漢語兒童的語用發展歷程與現象。研究的重點主要是在兒童表達請求的言語行為時所使用的語言形式，以及人際關係中會影響兒童禮貌表現的因素及其反應在語言形式的使用情形。透過對兩位以漢語為母語的兒童長期互動的觀察，本研究發現，兒童在表達請求時，採用多元的語言形式，包含祈使句、直述句、帶有語尾助詞的祈使句、以及表達個人慾望或需求的陳述句。考量這些語言形式使用的情境後進一步發現，兒童傾向在一般的日常對話中多以表達個人慾望的陳述句為表達請求的主要語言形式，而在合作互動的情境中，主要的請求語言形式則絕大多數為祈使句；這樣的語言功能分工，在兩歲半左右可以明顯觀察得到。 另外，透過兒童語言形式表達禮貌的觀察顯示，兒童普遍會依照人際互動的一些因素來選擇表達請求時所適用的語言形式，尤以有效性及地位高低為主要的兩個考量因素。觀察中發現，兒童大量使用祈使句及表達個人慾望需求的陳述句來表達請求，而其他的語言型式相對上則少得許多，主要的因素很有可能是這兩類的語言型式，在他們與父母互動中最能有效達到他們的溝通目的。此外，兒童也會依照他們在表達請求時與他們父母間的地位高低來考量請求所要使用的語言形式。儘管觀察結果指出，兒童傾向使用能有效達到溝通互動目的的語言形式來表達他們的請求，必要時，他們也會依照互動雙方的地位關係進行語言形式的微調，這樣的語言表現有明顯的系統性；而這樣的系統性，進而突顯了兒童約略在三歲前即對禮貌在語言形式使用的影響有了初步的系統與了解。 除了句法結構外，兒童也會透過詞彙單位來傳達他們在請求所應注意的禮貌，例如，必要時，他們會使用「幫」、「請」、及「我們」來修飾或削弱請求時可能對對方所造成的影響。這些詞彙的使用在發展上屬於略晚才習得的語言形式。 最後，研究的結果也指出，雖然兒童表達請求時，使用較為間接而有禮的語言形式，未必較能有效地達到他們的溝通目的，但是如果在表達請求的同時，也進一步說明理由者，達到溝通目的的機率則有明顯的增加。另外，從語言形式和表達請求的情境及人際地位的互動中發現，兒童表達請求的基本語言形式極有可能為表達個人的慾望與需求的陳述句，儘管祈使句在所觀察的語料中使用的頻率最高。這樣的論點，不但符合其他文獻中針對兒童語言發展的發現，也貼近兒童語言發展為連續過程的觀點，且也反應了人類語言發展的基本歷程。 / This study aims to investigate Mandarin-speaking children’s requests and their linguistic politeness so as to contribute to the understanding of children’s pragmatic development as well as linguistic development. The present study is mainly concerned with what linguistic devices children utilize to issue requests in spontaneous interactions with their parents and what interpersonal factors may have an influence on children’s uses of request forms. These two issues were discussed through examinations over children’s spontaneous interactions with their parents in family settings. On the basis of the longitudinal data produced by two children, it has been found that when requesting, children draw upon various linguistic devices, primarily including simple imperatives, WANT statements, imperatives with sentence-final particle, and declaratives. Such a variety of request forms can be observed from an early age on, at around two years old, but demonstrates no remarkable development, judged simply by these formal devices used at different ages. When situational contexts are also taken into account, nevertheless, a developmental pattern regarding the request forms is thus revealed. In terms of situational contexts, children are found to use simple imperatives primarily to convey their requests when involved in interactive activities with their parents, whereas they tend to utilize both simple imperatives and WANT statements when having common talks with their parents. Such a division of labor can be noticeably observed when children are about two and half years old. As to children’s linguistic politeness when making requests, the results reveal that children are aware of the influence of certain interactional and interpersonal factors on the appropriate use of linguistic forms. Children are inclined to draw upon comparatively more effective forms to issue their requests, and therefore children by and large request with pure imperatives and WANT statements, since these two request forms may effectively obtain the desirable compliance from their parents. In addition to effectiveness, children may also take interpersonal status and request cost into consideration when judging which request forms to use in the immediate context. Such consideration of interpersonal status when determining the appropriate request forms to use may thus reflects children’s awareness of politeness at around the age of three. In addition to syntactic structures, children are also found to draw upon lexical items to show their deference to politeness. Children may use such lexical forms as qing ‘please’, bang ‘to help with’ and women ‘let’s; we’ to mitigate the illocutionary force in their requests. These forms, despite their low frequencies in the data, may thus reveal children’s sensitivity to politeness when making such a face-threatening act as requests. The use of these polite lexical forms also discloses a comparatively late development in linguistic politeness; children may not use such polite forms until they reach the second half of their second year. A late development is also observed in the respect of children’s use of reasons to justify their requests. The results show that children’s justification may generally increase the effectiveness of their requests, but such use is infrequent and only observed at a later age, around the age of three. Finally, the results of the investigation into the data may suggest that WANT statements are highly likely an earlier developed request form and the prime linguistic forms children rely on to issue their requests, given the findings that children tend to request with WANT statements when interacting with parents at a lower status as a child and that children’s use of request forms are prone to the effect of interpersonal status. Such a suggestion may not only conform to the findings in previous studies with regard to children’s linguistic development in requests, but also accord with the general developmental pattern of human languages.