Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:30:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Felipe Jose Minervino Pacheco.pdf: 1398338 bytes, checksum: 6aa9cbdf908c3280615828b1053df1b1 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-06-07 / We propose to study the social justice in it s pre-modern and moderns conceptions as well as the different strategies of the implement of fundamental social rights and in a more general way the right to development and social inclusion with the intention of configuring this social justice to our time and to the brazilian legal system. We found out that the term social justice is based in the articles 170 and 193 of the 1988 Federal Constitution, referring to the different ways of the implement of the social rights in the sense of subjecting the state to the realization of the called minimum vital which, regarded in this light, offers minimum social inclusion, in terms of these social rights, has the purpose of the accomplishment of human dignity. Besides, it constitutes the foundation to the real equality and liberty among the citizens thus making possible the full development of the brazilian society / Neste trabalho, nos propomos a estudar a Justiça Social em suas concepções pré-moderna e moderna, bem como as diferentes estratégias de positivação dos direitos fundamentais sociais, e, em linhas gerais, o direito ao desenvolvimento e a inclusão social, com intuito de configurar a Justiça Social nos nossos dias e no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro. Constatamos que o termo Justiça Social - presente nos arts. 170 e 193 da Constituição Federal de 1988 - alude às diferentes formas de positivação dos direitos sociais, no sentido de se condicionar o Estado à concretização do alcunhado mínimo vital que, à vista de oferecer uma inclusão social mínima - em matéria destes direitos sociais -, tem por finalidade a observência do princípio da dignidade da pessoa humana, e, ademais, constitui base à igualdade e à liberdade reais entre os cidadãos, possibilitando o desenvolvimento pleno da sociedade brasileira

O Brasil tem visto um forte processo de judicialização de sua vida pública. Hoje, a Justiça exerce um papel político importante no país, mas é marcada pela ineficiência na solução de disputas e cobrança de créditos. Críticas à expansão desse papel político são, pois, abundantes. Diz-se que (i) geraria instabilidade institucional e um ambiente hostil ao desenvolvimento (crítica institucional); (ii) produziria resultados ilegítimos (preferências judiciais substituiriam decisões majoritárias - crítica de legitimidade) e (iii) resultaria em ações inefetivas, pois o aparato das cortes não é adequado a resolver conflitos policêntricos e prospectivos (crítica instrumental). Este trabalho analisa o processo brasileiro de judicialização e os argumentos centrais da crítica instrumental. Sugere que ela refere-se a um modelo de direito e justiça que está em transformação. No modelo emergente, a justiça distributiva é reintroduzida na dinâmica legal e a administração de interesses sobrepuja, aos poucos, a tutela de direitos. Essas mudanças, mais a judicialização, levam a alterações importantes no processo judicial. Reconhecendo os problemas daí decorrentes, a tese sugere um caráter virtuoso desse novo contencioso de direito público emergente. Ele parece forjar um mecanismo de reforço de participação política que pode avançar a democracia e melhorar condições de igualdade política. / From democratization in the mid 80? on, Brazilian public life has been forced into an increasingly intense process of judicialization. Lack of confidence in representative institutions, a very open-texted charter of social and economic rights, an important political use of the Judiciary by the oppositions, and other related factors seem to be implicated in this. Brazilian justice holds today a considerable political power, but that is just part of a story. It is also astonishingly inefficient as a services provider, and fails to respond to most of its dispute-solving and credit-enforcement functions. Criticism about the expansion of the political role of the Judiciary in this context is profuse. First, it is said to generate institutional instability, which in turn would bring out a hostile environment for economic growth. Second, it is said to be illegitimate, as far as politicized judges may often replace majoritarian decisions by their own. Third, it is said that litigation involving political issues and social reform tend to be erratic and ineffective, because the institutional designs of both courts and their processes are not adequate to regulate polycentric and prospective conflicts. This work puts Brazilian judicialization into context, and analyses the main arguments of the institutional capacity critique (which is called in here the instrumental critique). The author suggests that the instrumental critique refers to a certain model of law and justice that has been changing (both globally and in Brazil) since the end of the last century. In the emergent model, distributive justice is reintroduced into the dynamics of law, and the administration of diffuse interests slowly replaces the adjudication of individual rights as the paradigmatic activity of the Judiciary. Those changes in both law and justice, along with judicialization, are argued to have lead to other important changes in the design of the judicial process in Brazil. Despite the many problems related to those changes, the ending notes of this work point to a possible virtuous character of the new Brazilian public law litigation. As stated herein, this litigation seems to be creating a participation-reinforcing device that in the long run may foster democracy and political equality.

Public transport policies play a key role in shaping the social and spatial structure of cities. These policies influence how easily people can access opportunities, including health and educational services and job positions. The accessibility impacts of transport policies thus have important implications for social inequalities and for the promotion of just and inclusive cities. However, in the transportation literature, there is still little theoretically informed understanding of justice and what it means in the context of transport policies. Moreover, few studies have moved beyond descriptive analyses of accessibility inequalities to evaluate how much those inequalities result from transport policies themselves. This is particularly true in cities from the global South, where accessibility and equity have so far remained marginal concerns in the policy realm. This thesis builds on theories of distributive justice and examines how they can guide the evaluation of transport policies and plans. It points to pathways for rigorous assessment of the accessibility impacts of transport policies and it contributes to current discussions on transportation equity. A justice framework is developed to assess the distributional effects of transport policies. This framework is then applied to evaluate recent transport policies developed in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) in preparation to host sports mega-events, such as the 2014 FIFA World Cup and the 2016 Olympic Games, which included substantial expansion of the rail and Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) infrastructure. This research presents ex-post analyses of the policies implemented between 2014 and 2017 and ex-ante analysis of an as yet unfinished BRT project. It evaluates how the planned transport legacy of those mega-events impacted accessibility to sports venues, healthcare facilities, public schools and job opportunities for different income groups. The results show that there were overall accessibility benefits from the expansion in transport infrastructure between 2014 and 2017, but these were generally offset by the reduction in bus service levels that followed an economic crisis that hit the city after the Olympics. Quasi-counterfactual analysis suggests that, even if the city had not been hit by the economic crisis, recent transport investments related to mega-events would have led to higher accessibility gains for wealthier groups and increased inequalities in access to opportunities. Results suggest that those investments had, or would have had, greater impact on inequalities of access to jobs than in access to schools and healthcare facilities. The evaluation of the future accessibility impacts of the unfinished BRT corridor, nonetheless, indicates that such project could significantly improve access to job opportunities for a large share of Rio's population, particularly lower-income groups. Spatial analysis techniques show that the magnitude and statistical significance of these results depend on the spatial scale and travel time threshold selected for cumulative opportunity accessibility analysis. These results demonstrate that the ad-hoc methodological choices of accessibility analysis commonly used in the academic and policy literature can change the conclusions of equity assessments of transportation projects.

Submitted by Fabricia Fialho Reginato (fabriciar) on 2015-07-02T22:37:53Z No. of bitstreams: 1 AlessandraFonseca.pdf: 1008146 bytes, checksum: dbacca513ee8482c2178d70ba46b505e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-07-02T22:37:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 AlessandraFonseca.pdf: 1008146 bytes, checksum: dbacca513ee8482c2178d70ba46b505e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-06-26 / Nenhuma / Teoria da Justiça Distributiva: o tema a ser abordado nesta pesquisa se concentra em investigar a aplicabilidade da justiça distributiva pelo Supremo Tribunal Federal na declaração de constitucionalidade da contribuição previdenciária pelos servidores públicos inativos, apontando divergências entre correntes teóricas comunitaristas e individualistas. Identificar a partir de aporte jusfilosófico, a interpretação constitucional do Supremo Tribunal Federal orientada por valores, mediante aplicação da justiça distributiva no caso concreto sob fundamento principiológico da solidariedade, característica marcante do paradigma comunitarista inaugurado pela Constituição Federal de 1988, ao estabelecer como objetivo fundamental do Estado Democrático de Direito a construção de uma sociedade livre, justa e solidaria. / Theory of Distributive Justice: the topic being addressed in this research focuses on investigating the applicability of distributive justice in the Supreme Court in the declaration of the constitutionality of social security contributions for retired civil servants, pointing out discrepancies between theoretical currents communitarians and individualists. Identify the contribution from jusfilosófico, the constitutional interpretation of the Supreme Court values driven by the application of distributive justice in this case on the basis of solidarity principiológico, striking feature of the communitarian paradigm inaugurated by the 1988 Constitution, the fundamental objective of establishing democratic state to build a free, fair and inclusive.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:21:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Joao Paulo Mendes Neto.pdf: 1215205 bytes, checksum: ca00f74bb4003bfd46fb1b3888b5cb2a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-05-10 / This work aims to present the principle of the separation of Powers as a base premise to justify the effectuation of social rights by the Judicial Power. This study also objectives to define and justify the social rights as true fundamental rights, in a manner that recognizes, as civil and political rights, an immediate applicability given by the Citizen Constitution of 1988. Established these presuppositions, this work defends the capacity of the Judicial Power to function as a form to give effectiveness to social guarantees, especially, to the right of health, despite recognizing that it does not belong only to that Power ensure such effectiveness. This analysis is made by the decisions of the Brazilian Supreme Court and the philosophical justifications invoked, which will lead to the legitimacy of this Power to act in the defense of fundamental rights. This legitimacy will also be questioned to the National Council of Justice (NCJ), verifying through its constitutional functions until what point this Council should and could act in the effectuation of these rights as a representative of the Judicial Power in a non-legal manner so that there is a much greater uniformity between the budget legislation and the Federal Constitution and consequently, with the effective guarantee of fundamental rights. Finally, it is defended that the structure of the Federal Constitution allows the affirmation that the Brazilian State is turned to the ultimate reason to improve the social reality affected by the lack of recognition of these rights to society and that such a function could perfectly well be of the NCJ / Esse trabalho tem o condão de apresentar o princípio da separação de poderes como premissa base para justificar a efetivação dos direitos sociais pelo Poder Judiciário. Tem, ainda, o objetivo de definir e justificar os direitos sociais como verdadeiros direitos fundamentais, de modo que se lhes reconheça, assim como aos direitos civis e políticos, a aplicabilidade imediata conferida pela Constituição Cidadã de 1988. Estabelecidos esses pressupostos, o estudo defende a capacidade de o Poder Judiciário funcionar como instância para dar efetividade às garantias sociais, especificamente, o direito à saúde, apesar de reconhecer que não incumbe somente àquele Poder assegurar tal efetividade. Essa análise é feita mediante decisões do Supremo Tribunal Federal e as fundamentações jusfilosóficas invocadas que levarão à legitimidade deste Poder atuar na defesa de direitos fundamentais. Tal legitimidade será levantada ao Conselho Nacional de Justiça (CNJ) verificando diante de seu papel constitucional até que ponto o mesmo deve e pode atuar na efetivação de tais direitos como representante do Judiciário em sede extrajurídica para que haja uma maior uniformidade na legislação orçamentária com a Constituição Federal e, consequentemente, com a garantia efetiva dos direitos fundamentais. Por fim, defende-se que e a estruturação da Constituição Federal permite afirmar que o Estado Brasileiro está voltado à razão última de melhorar a realidade social afetada pela falta de reconhecimento desses direitos à coletividade e que tal função pode, perfeitamente, ser do CNJ

L’impartialité constitue une condition et un élément essentiels du concept de justice ; mais en quoi consiste-t-elle précisément ? Les théories de justice contemporaines tendent à l’aborder en termes strictement politiques, en laissant de côté ou en limitant ses aspects épistémologiques et moraux. Ce travail se propose d’exposer, d’analyser et de discuter de manière critique la manière dont Thomas Nagel aborde à nouveaux frais, à partir de sa thèse du conflit des perspectives, l’idée d’impartialité en termes à la fois épistémologiques, moraux et politiques. L’impartialité est en effet d’abord une affaire de jugement objectif et rationnel ; mais un tel jugement doit aussi tenir compte de la division des points de vue personnels et impersonnels en nous, ainsi que du pluralisme des raisons et des valeurs qu’elle engendre. Le concept d’impartialité requiert alors un examen attentif de cette division des perspectives, et des types ou degrés d’objectivité qui seraient possibles dans les débats tant moraux que politiques. Peut-on dégager des critères, des conditions, une méthode de l’impartialité ? Comment la garantir, au niveau moral mais aussi en termes politiques et distributifs ? Et quels principes, raisons ou valeurs une justice pleinement impartiale peut-elle avancer et promouvoir de manière cohérente et légitime ? À travers notre examen des thèses, originales et hybrides, de Thomas Nagel, nous défendons la nécessité de remonter à ces conditions et questions fondamentales afin d’élaborer une conception satisfaisante et réaliste de la justice impartiale. Une telle conception prend avec Nagel un visage libéral, démocratique, pluraliste et fortement égalitarien, qui est certes proche des théorisations de Rawls ou Scanlon, mais est façonné à partir de thèses originales et hybrides offrant des alternatives novatrices. Ces thèses, affinées et modifiées par Nagel au cours des années et souvent non encore traduites en français, n’avaient encore pas fait l’objet d’une étude francophone et spécialisée dans les débats contemporains autour des théorisations de la justice. Dans notre travail, nous en analysons les facettes épistémologiques, métaéthiques, éthiques, politiques et économiques, en mettant en perspective les conceptions de Nagel par rapport à celles des penseurs modernes et contemporains dont il se démarque, et en dégageant la manière dont ces thèses se combinent, se complètent, se limitent respectivement aussi parfois. À partir de l’analyse de ces différentes thèses, nous avançons des éléments de discussion critique et des prolongements du concept d’impartialité qui en résulte, ainsi que du type de justice sociale – libérale, pluraliste, fortement égalitarienne – qu’il porte. Nous défendons la perspective réaliste et rationaliste de Nagel, son refus de toute forme d’utopie et sa conception plurielle, hybride mais exigeante de l’impartialité, tout en prenant au sérieux les difficultés que ces thèses soulèvent et les points de blocage auxquels Nagel se heurte. Mais nous considérons que ces difficultés peuvent trouver, dans les options envisagées par Nagel et dans les éléments de critique que nous avançons dans notre thèse, des solutions ou du moins des pistes de résolution qui constituent autant de perspectives stimulantes pour prolonger l’effort philosophique au sujet de la justice, de l’impartialité et de l’équité, dans et pour le monde d’aujourd’hui. / Impartiality is an essential condition and element of the concept of justice. But what exactly is impartiality in itself? Contemporary theories of justice tend to approach it in strictly political terms, and to leave aside or to limit its epistemological and moral aspects. This work offers to expose, analyse and critically discuss the way Thomas Nagel, from his conception of the conflict of perspectives, renews the approach to the idea of impartiality in epistemological, moral and political terms. Indeed impartiality is first a matter of objective and rational judgment; but such a judgement must also take into account the division of personal and impersonal points of view within us, as well as the pluralism of reasons and values it creates. The concept of impartiality then requires a scrutiny of this division of perspectives, and of the types or degrees of objectivity that could be possible in both moral and political debates. Can we determine impartiality’s criteria, conditions or method? How are we to guarantee it, morally but also politically and distributively? Which principles, reasons or values can a fully impartial justice consistently and legitimately advance or promote? Through our examination of Thomas Nagel’s original and hybrid conceptions, we defend the necessity of going back to these fundamental conditions and questions in order to elaborate a satisfying and realistic conception of impartial justice. Such a conception takes in Nagel’s approach a liberal, democratic, pluralistic and strongly egalitarian shape. It is surely close to Rawls’ or Scanlon’s theorizations of justice, but it is based on original and hybrid theses that offer innovative alternatives. These theses, which Nagel refined and modified over years and which, for most of them, have not yet been translated into French, had not until then been studied in France with a specialized focus on contemporary debates around theories of justice. In our work, we analyse their epistemological, metaethical, ethical, political and economic aspects, while putting into perspective Nagel’s conceptions in relation to those of modern and contemporary thinkers whom he stands out. We also show and explain how his theses combine, complete but also sometimes limit each other. With this analyse, we offer elements of critical discussion and possible extensions of the concept impartiality hence built, as well as of the type of social justice – liberal, pluralist, strongly egalitarian – that it carries. We defend the realist and rationalist perspective of Nagel, his refusal of any form of utopia and his plural, hybrid but demanding conception of impartiality. We also take seriously the difficulties his theses raise and the blockings Nagel faces. But we consider that these difficulties can find, in the options he explores and in the critical elements we suggest in our dissertation, solutions or at least possible resolutions that constitute as many stimulating perspectives to pursue the philosophical effort about justice, impartiality and equity, within and for our actual world.

La recherche biomédicale réalisée en situation d'urgence traduit la confrontation entre différents principes conducteurs éthiques. Le respect de l'autonomie de la personne, illustré à travers l'obtention du consentement libre et éclairé du sujet pressenti, peut sembler un concept vide de sens dans le cas des malades présentant une condition médicale critique. Pour ces patients en proie à une crise médicale, et donc vulnérables, une protection individuelle accrue s'impose. Une surprotection irait, toutefois, à la fois à l'encontre du principe de justice distributive et du principe de bienfaisance, impliquant de ne pas exclure totalement un groupe de sujets des expectatives élevées de bénéfices d'une recherche correctement balisée. Ce texte a pour objectif de cerner quel est le fondement - éthique - des textes législatifs, réglementaires et normatifs qui permettent l'enrôlement de ces malades atteints de pathologies foudroyantes dans des protocoles de recherche, alors même qu'aucun consentement, qu'il soit autonome ou substitué, n'a été donné. Inspirée du modèle de réflexion éthique pluraliste, l'auteur pose comme hypothèse que c'est le principe de justice distributive qui sous-tend la politique éthique de tels textes, puisque contribuant au développement des avancées thérapeutiques en urgence et à la nécessité d'augmenter l'efficacité des traitements disponibles. Ce texte cherche finalement à définir une démarche d'approbation des protocoles de recherche qui seront réalisés en situation d'urgence. / Biomedical research performed under emergency conditions highlights the conflict between competing ethical principles. The respect for the autonomy of the person, illustrated by the need to obtain a subject's informed consent, can seem an empty concept in the case of a patient presenting severe medical conditions. For those patients in a midst of a medical crisis, and therefore vulnerable, particular protection is necessary. An overprotection would, however, contravene both the principles of distributive justice and of beneficence, principles that hold that an entire group of subjects ought not to be excluded from the expectations of the benefits of properly controlled research. The object of this text is to discem the ethical foundation of the legislative, regulatory and normative texts that permit those stricken with devasting diseases to participate in research projects without consent having been granted. Based on the pluralist ethical model, the author asserts as a hypothesis that it is the principle of distributive justice which supports the ethical policies underlying such texts, since contributing to the development of therapeutic advances in emergencies and to the necessity of increasing the effectiveness of available treatments. This text attempts ultimately to establish procedures to be followed in obtaining approval in research projects in the case of an emergency. / "Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de maîtrise en droit option Droit et Biotechnologies". Ce mémoire a été accepté à l'unanimité et classé parmi les 15% des mémoires de la discipline.

Les violations aux droits humains causent des milliers de victimes chaque année, des mécanismes de justice sont élaborés afin de répondre à ces crimes, mais les victimes demeurent peu consultées. Par le biais d’entretiens semi-directifs, cette étude présente le point de vue et les attentes des victimes de crimes contre l’humanité du Cambodge et du Rwanda sur la justice. La justice sociale constitue le cadre théorique de cette étude. Les résultats montrent que la justice pénale est centrale à la définition de la justice. La réparation et la vérité en constituent aussi les éléments essentiels. Toutefois, la capacité des tribunaux à rendre compte de la vérité est critiquée par les répondants créant un écart entre ce qu’elles veulent et ce qu’elles obtiennent. La qualité de la prise de décision et du traitement interpersonnel favorise aussi la perception de justice du point de vue des victimes. Les différentes composantes de la justice perçues, comme la punition, la réparation et la procédure, varient toutefois en fonction du contexte social et historique de la victimisation. / Human rights violations cause thousands of victims every year. Justice mechanisms, such as the International Criminal Court, have been developed to respond to these crimes, but victims remain under consulted. In this study, semi-structured interviews were conducted with Rwandan and Cambodian victims of crimes against humanity. Using social justice theories as a theoretical framework, this study examines victims’ perceptions of justice. The results show that while criminal justice is central in victims’ definition of justice, reparation and truth also are essential components. However, the criminal court’s ability to achieve truth is criticized by respondents creating a gap between the truth that they seek and the truth that they obtain. The quality of decision-making as well as how victims are treated also contribute to victims’ perception of justice. However, victims’ justice objectives vary according to the social and historic context.

Ciblant la réduction des inégalités sociales de santé, le Québec a établi une stratégie de soutien au développement des communautés en santé publique. Or, un usage ambigu du terme de « communauté » est identifiable dans les documents officiels de santé publique au Québec, ce qui pose des questions d’équité et de justice sociale. D'abord, cette imprécision permet mal l’application du soutien au développement des communautés et laisse présager la même difficulté quant à l’objectif de réduction des inégalités sociales de santé qui s’y rattache. Aussi, cette situation pose un problème d’équité, puisqu’elle mène difficilement à la justification des choix des communautés qui seront soutenues pour leur développement. Le premier Chapitre de ce mémoire confirme alors l’hypothèse selon laquelle on ne s’efforce pas suffisamment pour rendre compréhensible la notion de « communauté » en santé publique, à l’aide d’une analyse de contenu des documents de santé publique québécois. Le deuxième chapitre explore diverses compréhensions du terme à travers les sciences sociales. On propose alors la typologie de Vibert pour démontrer la richesse sociohistorique du concept de « communauté » et ses enjeux et pour permettre d’éclairer les professionnels de santé quant aux choix des communautés qu’ils soutiendront dans leur pratique. Enfin, si plusieurs acceptations du terme de « communauté » sont justifiables en santé publique, alors sous quels critères sont sélectionnées les communautés soutenues? Le troisième chapitre y réfléchit, en s’appuyant sur le modèle de justice procédurale développé par Daniels et Sabin pour répondre équitablement aux désaccords liés aux rationnements en santé. / To reduce social health inequalities, the Quebec government has introduced a strategy to support community development. However, official Quebec government documents in the public health sector are ambiguous in their use of the term “community”, which raises issues of fairness and justice. First, the ambiguity of this concept points to a lack of effort to make community development functional, which suggests a lack of seriousness with regards to reducing associated health inequalities. There is also an issue of fairness, because the rationale for the selection of communities that can expect support in community development cannot be justified if we do not know what “community” means. In the first chapter, this thesis employs a content analysis of Quebec public health documents to confirm the hypothesis that these official documents do not make sufficiently clear the concept of “community”. The second chapter explores understandings of this term in the social sciences. Vibert’s typology is proposed to account for the socio-historical richness of the term “community”, the issues that this term raises and a possible means for enabling health professionals to make better-informed choices about the communities they support in their practice. Finally, if multiple uses or understanding of the term “community” are acceptable in Quebec public health, then by what criteria are communities selected for support? The third chapter examines the model of procedural justice developed by Daniels and Sabin to respond fairly to disagreements related to rationing in health.

Dos teorías dominantes en el ámbito académico se atribuyen la mejor explicación de la responsabilidad extracontractual. El análisis económico sostiene que los conceptos fundamentales de la práctica cobran su mayor sentido cuando se los inter¬preta a la luz del objetivo social de mantener el coste de los accidentes en un nivel óptimo. Para los partidarios de la justicia correctiva, en cambio, la responsabilidad extracontractual regula las interac¬ciones privadas de los indi¬viduos imponiendo al causante del daño la obligación de indemni¬zar de modo que se rectifiquen a la vez las pérdidas y las ganancias injus¬tas. Argumentaré que la responsabilidad extracontractual es una práctica mucho más compleja de lo que estas dos teorías suponen. Su estructura está con¬formada tanto por principios correctivos como distributivos. A su vez, la noción de derechos y deberes de indemnidad permite comprender de qué manera estos principios están articulados. / Two important theories claim to provide the best explanation of tort law. The Law and Economics movement holds that the fundamental concepts of the practice are best understood when they are interpreted in light of the social goal of maintaining the costs of accidents at an optimal level. According to corrective justice proponents, on the other hand, tort law regulates the private interactions of persons imposing the duty to compensate upon the causal agent of the harm, in order to rectify at the same time wrongful gains and losses. I will argue that tort law is a much complex practice that these two theories assume. Its structure is conformed both by corrective and distributive principles. In turn, the notion of indemnity rights and duties allow us to understand the way these principles are articulated.