Multiphase flows are a common phenomenon. Rains, sediment transport in rivers, snow and dust storms, mud slides and avalanches are examples of multiphase flows occurring in nature. Blood flow is an example of multiphase flow in the human body, which is of vital importance for survival. Multiphase flows occur widely in industrial applications from hydrocarbon extrac-tion to fuel combustion in engines, from spray painting to spray drying, evaporators, pumps and pneumatic conveying. Predicting multiphase flows is of vital importance to understand natural phenomenon and to design and improve industrial processes. Separated flows and dispersed flows are two types of multiphase flows, which occur together in many industrial applications. Physical features of these two classes are different and the transition from one to another involves complex flow physics. Experimental studies of multiphase flows are not easy, as most real world phenomenon cannot be scaled down to laboratory models. Even for those phenomenon that can be demonstrated at lab-oratory scale, rescaling to real world applications requires mathematical models. There are many challenges in experimental measurements of multiphase flows as well. Measurement techniques well suited for single phase flows have constraints when measuring multiphase phenomenon. Un-certainty in experimental measurements poses considerable difficulties in validating numerical models developed for predicting these flows. Owing to the computational effort required, direct simulation of multiphase flows, even for small scale real world applications is out of present scope. Numerical methods have been developed for dealing with each class of flow separately, that in-volves use of models for phenomenon that is computationally demanding. Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) methods for predicting multiphase flows place strong requirements on turbulence models, as information about fluctuating quantities in the field, that have significant effects on dispersed phase, is not available. Large Eddy Simulation (LES) gives better predictions than RANS as the instantaneous field data is available and large scale unsteadiness that effects the dispersed phase can be captured. Recent LES studies of multiphase flows showed that the sub-grid-scale (SGS) model used for the continuous phase has an effect on the evolution of the dispersed phase. In this work, LES of multiphase flows is performed using Explicit Filtering Large Eddy Sim-ulation method. In this method, spatial derivatives are computed using higher order compact schemes that have spectral-like resolution. SGS modeling is provided by the use of a filter with smoothly falling transfer function. This method is mathematically consistent and converges to a DNS as the grid is refined. It has been successfully applied to combustion and aero-acoustics and this work is the first application of the method to multiphase flows. Study of dispersed multiphase flows was carried out in this work. Modeling of the dispersed phase is kept simple since the in-tention was to evaluate the capability of explicit filtering LES method in predicting multiphase flows. Continuous phase is solved using a compressible formulation with explicit filtering method. Spatial derivatives are computed using fourth and sixth order compact schemes that use derivative splitting method proposed by Hixon & Turkel (2000a) and second order Runge-Kutta (RK2) time stepping. The grid is stretched as needed. Non-reflecting boundary conditions due to Poinsot & Lele (1992) are used to avoid acoustic reflections from boundaries. Buffer zones (Bogey & Bailly (2002)) are employed at outflow and lateral boundaries to damp vortical structures. The code developed for continuous phase is evaluated by studying round jets at Re =36,000 and comparing with experimental measurements of Hussein et al. (1994) and Panchapakesan & Lumley (1993). Simulations showed excellent agreement with experimental results. Rate of decay of axial velocity and the evolution of turbulence intensities on the centerline matched very well with measurements. Radial profiles of mean and fluctuating components of velocities exhibit self-similarity. A set of studies were then performed using this code to assess the effect of numerical scheme, grid refinement & stretching and simulation times on the predictions. Results from these simulations showed good agreements with experiments and established the code for use in multiphase flows under various simulation conditions. To assess the prediction of multiphase flows using this LES method, an evaporating spray ex-periment by Chen et al. (2006) was simulated. The experiment uses a nebuliser for generating a finely atomized spray of acetone, which avoids complex breakdown phenomenon associated with air blast atomizers and provides well defined boundary conditions for model evaluation. The neb-uliser sits upstream in a pipe carrying air and droplets travel along with air for a distance of 10 diameters before exiting into a wind tunnel with co-flowing air. Droplet breakdown, if any, takes place inside the pipe and the spray is finely atomized by the time it reaches pipe exit. One of the experimental cases at Re =31,600, with a mass loading of 1.1% and a jet velocity of 56 m/s is simulated. Particle size has a χsquared distribution with a Sauter mean diameter of 18µm. In the self-similar region, decay of centerline velocity and turbulence intensities matched well with ex-perimental results. Continuous phase exhibits self-similar behavior. A series of simulations were then performed to match the initial region of the spray by altering the inflow conditions in the sim-ulation. Simulation that matched the breakdown location of the experiment revealed the presence of a relaxation zone with a higher initial spreading rate, followed by a lower asymptotic spreading rate. Studies were performed to understand the effect of various phenomenon like evaporation and droplet size on this behavior. A study of breakdown region of particle-laden jets was performed to understand the presence of relaxation zone post breakdown. Flow conditions were similar to evaporating spray experiment except that particles do not evaporate, mass loading is 2% and jet Reynolds number Re =2000. A series of grid refinements were performed and on the largest grid, gird spacing Δy =7.5η, where ηis an estimate of the Kolmogorov length scale based on flow conditions. Decay of axial velocity on the centerline showed variations with grid refinement, tending to the experimentally measured value as the grid is refined. Variation of turbulence intensities along the centerline revealed a jump in axial velocity fluctuations at the breakdown location, while radial and azimuthal velocities showed a smooth increase to their asymptotic value. This jump was resolved on grid refinement and on fine grids axial velocity fluctuations followed the other two quantities closely in their rise to asymptotic state. Comparison of these quantities with a jet without particles revealed that the flow features are same for a jet with and without particles, and at the mass loading studied, particles have negligible effect on jet breakdown. Another study performed at a higher Reynolds number of Re =11,000, under similar flow conditions showed similar behavior. To assess the ability of predicting dispersed phase, simulations of particle-laden flows at low Stokes number were performed and compared against an experiment by Lau & Nathan (2014). The experiment studies variation of velocity and particle concentration along the centerline, and half widths of a jet velocity and concentration. Particles are injected into a pipe along with air, and the two phase flow is fully developed by the time it exits the pipe into a wind tunnel along with a co-flow. Particles are mono-disperse with a density of 1200 kg/m3. Mass loading is 40% so that particles have a significant effect on the continuous phase. Two cases at particle Stokes number of 1.4, one with Re =10,000, bulk velocity of 12 m/s and particle diameter of 20µm and another with Re =22,500, bulk velocity of 36 m/s and particle diameter of 10µm were simulated. Simulations of both the cases showed good match with experimental measurements of centerline decay for the continuous phase. For the dispersed case, simulations with larger particles showed good match with experimental results, while smaller particles showed differences. This was understood to be the effect of lateral migration which is prominent in case of smaller particles, the models for which have not been used in the present simulation study.

Le système immunitaire adaptatif joue un rôle de premier plan dans la défense contre les infections. La réponse humorale, impliquant la production d'anticorps, est un élément important de la réponse immunitaire adaptative. Au cours d'une infection, des cellules B spécifiques du système immunitaire prolifèrent et libèrent de grandes quantités d'anticorps qui se lient sélectivement à la protéine cible (antigène) trouvée sur le pathogène invasif, induisant la destruction du pathogène.Cependant, le système immunitaire ne répond pas toujours suffisamment efficacement pour détruire les agents pathogènes, et les mécanismes de tolérance empêchent la génération d'anticorps contre les protéines humaines - comme les marqueurs de surface cellulaire sur les cellules cancéreuses ou les cytokines impliquées dans des maladies inflammatoires et auto-immunes - qui pourraient être des cibles thérapeutiques importantes. Par conséquent, il existe un grand intérêt pour la recherche et le développement d'anticorps spécifiques qui peuvent être utilisés pour le traitement des patients par immunothérapie. En raison de leur grande affinité et de leur liaison sélective aux antigènes, les anticorps monoclonaux (mAbs) sont apparus comme des agents thérapeutiques puissants. Les anticorps monoclonaux dérivés de cellules B individuelles ont une séquence unique et présentent une affinité de liaison pour un antigène spécifique. Cependant, jusqu'à maintenant, la découverte des mAbs a été limitée par l'absence de méthodes à haut débit pour le criblage direct et à grande échelle de cellules B primaires non immortalisées pour découvrir les rares cellules B qui produisent des anticorps spécifiques d'intérêt clinique. Ceci est maintenant possible avec l'émergence et l'amélioration des méthodes de compartimentation in vitro pour l'encapsulation et le criblage de cellules uniques dans des gouttelettes picolitriques. Dans mon projet de doctorat, je décris le développement d'immunodosages et de dispositifs microfluidiques pour le criblage phénotypique direct de cellules individuelles à partir de populations de cellules B enrichies. Ce développement a permis une analyse détaillée de la réponse immunitaire humorale, avec une résolution à l’échelle de la cellule unique. C’est aussi un élément essentiel d'un pipeline de détection d'anticorps couplant le criblage phénotypique de cellules individuelles au séquençage d'anticorps sur cellules uniques. Il est maintenant possible, pour la première fois, de cribler des millions de cellules B individuelles en fonction de l'activité de liaison des anticorps sécrétés et de récupérer les séquences d'anticorps / The adaptive immune system plays a leading role in defense against infection. The humoral response, involving the production of antibodies, is an important component of the adaptive immune response. During an infection, specific B cells of the immune system proliferate and release large amounts of antibodies which bind selectively to the target protein (antigen) found on the invading pathogen, inducing destruction of the pathogen. However, the immune system does not always respond efficiently enough to destroy pathogens, and tolerance mechanisms prevent the generation of antibodies against human protein - such as cell surface markers on cancer cells or cytokines involved in inflammatory and autoimmune disease - that could be important therapeutic targets. Hence, there is great interest in research and development of specific antibodies that can be used for immunotherapy of patients. Due to their high affinity and selective binding to antigens, monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) have emerged as powerful therapeutic agents. Monoclonal antibodies derived from single B cells have a unique sequence and display binding affinity for a specific antigen. However, until now, the discovery of mAbs has been limited by the lack of high-throughput methods for the direct and large-scale screening of non-immortalized primary B cells to uncover rare B cells which produce the specific antibodies of clinical interest. This is now becoming possible with the emergence and improvement of in vitro compartmentalization methods for single-cell encapsulation and screening in picoliter droplets. In my PhD project, I describe the development of binding immunoassays and microfluidic devices for the direct phenotypic screening of single-cells from enriched B cell populations. This development has enabled detailed analysis of the humoral immune response, with single-cell resolution and is an essential component of an antibody-discovery pipeline coupling single-cell phenotypic screening to single-cell antibody sequencing. It is now possible, for the first time, to screen millions of single B cells based on the binding activity of the secreted antibodies and to recover the antibody sequences

The cardinality estimation in ETL processes is particularly difficult. Aside from the well-known SQL operators, which are also used in ETL processes, there are a variety of operators without exact counterparts in the relational world. In addition to those, we find operators that support very specific data integration aspects. For such operators, there are no well-examined statistic approaches for cardinality estimations. Therefore, we propose a black-box approach and estimate the cardinality using a set of statistic models for each operator. We discuss different model granularities and develop an adaptive cardinality estimation framework for ETL processes. We map the abstract model operators to specific statistic learning approaches (regression, decision trees, support vector machines, etc.) and evaluate our cardinality estimations in an extensive experimental study.

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Tal och texter kan innehålla så mycket; både uppenbara budskap och det som finns mellan raderna. Jag tror att vi kan lära oss mycket genom att ta del av andra människors ord och begrepp. Genom de begrepp vi använder uttrycker vi våra värderingar – det vi ser som bra och dåligt, viktigt och oviktigt. Människor i Västvärlden har genom historien generellt representerat ett idéarv som kan sägas vara specifikt för just Västvärlden. Ett sätt att tänka, se och tolka världen, som skiljer sig från människor i Öst. Annorlunda i Östs ögon. Och i Västs ögon är det Öst som är annorlunda. Där har man i generationer istället formulerat och omfamnat andra sätt att tänka, se och tolka världen. Ingen av dessa diskurser har förstås något självklart tolkningsföreträde och ingen kan ensam göra anspråk på sanningen. Men en tydlig konflikt existerar mellan de olika världsbilderna. Och den blir synlig bland annat i valen av ord och begrepp. Ord som frihet, framsteg, lydnad och rättvisa kan skapa olika associationer hos människor i Öst och Väst. Bakom orden och begreppen döljer sig de värderingar som är förhärskande i respektive diskurs. Jag har tittat närmare på några sådana värderingar för att se om de kan ge svar på frågor om orsakerna till konflikterna mellan Öst och Väst. Jag har härlett dessa värderingar bakåt i tiden för att komma åt de idéarv som två av diskurserna bygger på. Det är två diskurser med djupa rötter i historien – till synes oförenliga. Båda säger sig ha det rätta perspektivet och ofta även lösningar på världens problem. Men de tycks tala förbi varandra och se på varandra genom ett slags filter av fördomar, förutfattade meningar och oförsonlighet. När jag zoomat in några av dessa diskursers företrädare har jag sett att de båda diskurserna går att förstå och förklara genom att tillämpa teorier från idéhistorien. Jag har med hjälp av teorier om orientalism och occidentalism velat sätta fokus på politiska hållningar som kan uppfattas som ”extrema” och till synes liberala uppfattningar. Men vad är egentligen vad? Kan Usama Bin Laden hylla kärleken? Kan Tony Blair kräva lydnad? Det är angeläget att söka förståelse för de historiska sammanhang som ofta förblir outtalade eller ensidiga men som har betydelse för vår samtid. Jag är intresserad av hur Väst och Öst talar till och förhåller sig till varandra, med varandra och mot varandra. Med denna uppsats hoppas jag kunna bidra till lite större klarhet och insikt i den språkförbistring som orsakar konflikter i världen.

The main purpose of this work is to investigate if the US ́s killing of Osama bin Laden on 2 May 2011 in Abbottabad in Pakistan was lawful. The background to the killing is what happened on 11 September 2001 when four US airplanes were hijacked and crashed into World Trade Center and Pentagon. Al Qaeda, a terrorist organisation led by Osama bin Laden, was immediately suspected for the attacks, which led to the starting point of the US ́s ‘global war on terror’. This work tries to give a short brief on ‘global war on terror’ and answer if there is a global war on terror and/or if a new category of war is needed. In order to get an answer to the main question of this work I had to investigate if US is in an international armed conflict or in a non-international armed conflict with Al Qaida. Another important question to investigate is if an armed conflict in one State can spill over to another State and still be consider as an armed conflict. Other important questions to answer are, if Osama bin Laden was a legitimate target under international humanitarian law, if he was a civilian or if he had a continuous combat function and what level of participation in hostilities he had? Not less important is also to investigate if human rights law is applicable when Osama bin Laden was killed, especially the fundamental right to life. Lastly I end my investigation with a quick review of the laws of jus ad bellum in order to get an answer if US had a right to resort to force in Pakistan. My conclusion is that the US was not involved in an armed conflict with al Qaeda in Pakistan where the killing took place. The conflict between the US and al Qaeda in Afghanistan is to be categorised as a non-international conflict. This conflict cannot be described as a conflict that has spilled over to Abbottabad where Osama bin Laden was killed. All people, including Osama bin Laden, has a right to life. Because of lack of information on what happened in Abbottabad when Osama bin Laden was killed it is impossible to give a clear legal answer if the US had the right to kill him. It could be lawful, but it could also be considered as a crime against international human rights law.

The Internet, and Web 2.0 tools can empower audiences to actively participate in media creation. This allows the production of large quantities of content, both amateur and professional. Online memes, which are extensions of usually citizen-created viral content, are a recent and popular example of this. This thesis examines the participation of ordinary individuals in political culture online through humor creation. It focuses on citizen-made political humor memes as an example of engaged citizen discourse. The memes comprise of photographs of political figures altered either by captions or image editing software, and can be compared to more traditional mediums such as political cartoons, and 'green screens' used in filmmaking. Popular culture is often used as a 'common language' to communicate meanings in these texts. This thesis thus examines the relationship between political and popular culture. It also discusses the value of 'affinity spaces', which actively encourage users to participate in creating and sharing the humorous political texts. Some examples of the political humor memes include: the subversion of Vladimir Putin's power by poking fun at his masculine characteristics through acts similar to fanfiction, celebrating Barack Obama’s love of Star Wars, comparing a candid photograph of John McCain to fictional nonhuman creatures such as zombies using photomanipulation, and the wide variety of immediate responses to Osama bin Laden's death. This thesis argues that much of the idiosyncratic nature of the political humor memes comes from a motivation that lies in non-serious play, though they can potentially offer legitimate political criticism through the myths 'poached' from popular culture.

Η οπτική συνεκτική τομογραφία με τη χρήση συχνοτήτων ( FD-OCT) είναι μια ενδαγγειακή απεικονιστική μέθοδος που χρησιμοποιεί εγγύς στο υπέρυθρο φως, για να παράγει υψηλής ανάλυσης εικόνες του τοιχώματος του αυλού του αγγείου. Όπως και στην τεχνολογία υπερήχων, εκπέμπεται φωτεινή ενέργεια η οποία ανακλάται και εξασθενεί, σύμφωνα με την υφή του προσπιπτομένου ιστού. Το OCT μπορεί να απεικονίσει, με ανάλυση από 10 έως 20 μm, μικροδομές του αγγειακού τοιχώματος με εξαίσια λεπτομέρεια. Μέχρι σήμερα, η δυνατότητα εφαρμογής της μεθόδου είχε περιοριστεί σε μικρές αρτηρίες διαμέτρου έως 4mm και δεν είχε εφαρμοστεί in vivo στα αγγεία των κάτω άκρων, κάτωθεν του επιπέδου των βουβώνων. Σκοπός της παρούσας μελέτης είναι να αναφερθεί για παγκοσμίως πρώτη φορά η ασφάλεια και η σκοπιμότητα της απεικόνισης με Οπτική Συνεκτική Τομογραφία του αρτηριακού άξονα των κάτω άκρων , κάτωθεν του επιπέδου της βουβώνας ( μηροϊγνυακός άξονας και κνημιαία αγγεία), καθώς και οι σχετιζόμενες με το FD-OCT επιπλοκές. Επιπρόσθετα, να διερευνηθούν για πρώτη φορά, με τη χρήση FD-OCT, τα χαρακτηριστικά του αγγειακού τοιχώματος του ανωτέρω άξονα (τόσο πριν όσο και μετά από αγγειοπλαστική ή/και τοποθέτηση stent), η μορφολογία της αθηρωματικής πλάκας, η μορφολογία και η ποσοτικοποίηση της υπερπλασίας του νέου εσωτερικού χιτώνα (neointima) εντός του stent, η επαναστένωση εντός του stent (ISR) και η κακή εναπόθεση (malapposition) των stent struts σε μια σειρά από ασθενείς που πάσχουν από περιφερική αρτηριοπάθεια (PAD). Μελετήθηκαν, με ποσοτική ανάλυση του αυλού τους (Quantitative vascular analysis), αρτηρίες με διάμετρο έως 7 χιλιοστά. Μικτά χαρακτηριστικά από περιοχές πλούσιες σε λιπίδια, εναποθέσεις ασβεστίου και ασβεστοποιημένες πλάκες, νεκρωτικές περιοχές και ίνωση εντοπίστηκαν σε όλες τις απεικονιζόμενες αθηροσκληρωτικές βλάβες. Ωστόσο, με βάση το επικρατέστερο από τα παραπάνω απεικονιστικά χαρακτηριστικά, οι βλάβες στο πλαίσιο της έρευνας ταξινομήθηκαν ως αμιγώς ινωτικές, ως ινοασβεστοποιημένες, ως πλούσιες σε λιπίδια και τέλος ως νεκρωτικές/ασβεστοποιημένες. Συσσώρευση των μακροφάγων εντός της αθηρωματικής πλάκας σημειώθηκε σε μικρό ποσοστό των de novo αθηρωματικών αλλοιώσεων. Ποικίλοι βαθμοί υπερπλασίας του νέου έσω χιτώνα απεικονίσθηκαν σε όλες τις περιπτώσεις ISR αλλοιώσεων, με καθαρά ινωτικά χαρακτηριστικά και σημαντική νεοαγγείωση σε κάποιες από αυτές. Η νεοαγγείωση συνέπεσε με το επίπεδο της μέγιστης στένωσης του αγγειακού αυλού. Σημαντικού βαθμού διαχωρισμός με μεγάλο περιορισμό του αγγειακού αυλού, τέτοιος ώστε να απαιτηθεί να τοποθετηθεί ενδοαυλικό stent, ανιχνεύθηκε σε αρκετές περιπτώσεις της de novo αθηρωμάτωσης. Η ψηφιακή αφαιρετική αγγειογραφία παρέλειψε να προσδιορίσει μεγάλο ποσοστό των σοβαρών διαχωρισμών μετά από αγγειοπλαστική. Η νεοαθηροσκλήρυνση εντός του νέου έσω χιτώνα των κνημιαίων φαρμακευτικών stents (DES), είναι ένα συχνό εύρημα τόσο στους συμπτωματικούς όσο και στους ασυμπτωματικούς ασθενείς. Μπορούμε να υποθέσουμε ότι, κατά αναλογία με τα εμφυτευμένα DES στα στεφανιαία αγγεία, η ελαττωματική ενδοθηλιοποίηση που προκαλείται από την εκλυόμενη φαρμακευτική ουσία, μαζί με την νεοαγγείωση που αναπτύσσεται μεταξύ των stent struts, μπορούν να υποδαυλίσουν την νεοαθηροσκλήρυνση εντός του νέου έσω χιτώνα των κνημιαίων DES, η οποία μπορεί να οδηγήσει σε επαναστένωση εντός του stent (ISR) και απώλεια του εμβαδού του αυλού των περιφερικών αρτηριών. Οι παρατηρήσεις της μελέτης αυτής θέτουν σε αμφισβήτηση το παραδοσιακό τρόπο κατανόησης της περιφερειακής επαναστένωσης εντός του stent ως μιας απλής υπερπολλαπλασιαστικής απάντησης στο βαρότραυμα. Η απεικόνιση με FD-OCT είναι ένα βέλτιστο πειραματικό εργαλείο για την αξιολόγηση της εξέλιξης της αθηροσκληρωματικής νόσου και την επαναστένωση του αγγείου. Μπορεί να παρέχει υψηλής ευκρίνειας ενδοαγγειακή απεικόνιση κατά τη διάρκεια αγγειοπλαστικών επεμβάσεων στα κάτω άκρα και θα μπορούσε να αποδειχθεί κλινικά χρήσιμο για τον προσδιορισμό της εντός του stent πρόπτωσης ιστού και του strut malapposition. Παρ 'όλα αυτά, δεν πρέπει να χρησιμοποιηθεί ως εργαλείο για τη συνήθη κλινική πρακτική μέχρι να προκύψουν στοιχεία από περαιτέρω κλινικές δοκιμές για τον καθορισμό των ειδικών ενδείξεων της απεικόνισης με FD-OCT στις περιφερικές αρτηρίες. / Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a catheter-based imaging method that employs near-infrared light to produce high-resolution intravascular images. OCT can readily visualize vessel microstructure at a 10- to 20-μm resolution with exquisite detail. To date, however, applicability of the method has been limited to small diameter arteries (≤4 mm). To the best of the author’s knowledge, this study is the first worldwide that demonstrates the safety and clinical feasibility of frequency domain Optical Coherence Tomography (FD-OCT) imaging of infrainguinal vessels in vivo during infrainguinal angioplasty procedures. It is also the first study that reports the use of intravascular FD-OCT to detect and characterize in-stent neointimal tissue following infrapopliteal drug eluting stent (DES) placement in patients suffering from critical limb ischemia. Quantitative lumen analysis of arteries with diameter up to 7 mm was performed. High-resolution OCT images provided exquisite two-dimensional axial and longitudinal views of the infrainguinal arteries and allowed thorough investigation of a variety of angioplasty sequela, including and not limited to intimal tears and dissection flaps, white and red thrombus, stent mesh malapposition, and intrastent plaque prolapse. Of interest, OCT identified cases of suboptimal postangioplasty outcome that single-plane subtraction angiography did not recognize and accounted. Mixed features of lipid pool areas, calcium deposits and calcified plaques, necrotic areas, and fibrosis were identified in all of the imaged atherosclerotic lesions. However, based on the predominant baseline imaging findings, lesions under investigation were classified as purely fibrotic, fibrocalcific, mostly lipid-laden and necrotic/calcified. Intraplaque accumulation of macrophages was noted in some of de novo atheromatic lesions. Varying degrees of neointimal hyperplasia were demonstrated in all cases of in stent restenosis (ISR) lesions with purely fibrotic features and considerable neovascularization in some of them. The latter finding coincided with the level of maximum vessel stenosis in all cases. Neoatherosclerosis following infrapopliteal DES placement is a frequent finding in both symptomatic and asymptomatic patients. Our preliminary observations allow us to speculate that analogous to coronary implanted DES, defective endothelialization induced by the eluted drug, along with neovascularization developing between the stent struts, may incite neointimal neoatherosclerosis, which may result in ISR and lumen loss of the peripheral arteries. It also seems that infrapopliteal neoatherosclerosis may be a significant contributing factor for ISR rather than a minor and sporadic process, highlighting the clinical significance of the phenomenon. Our observations put in dispute the traditional way of understanding peripheral in-stent restenosis as a simple hyperproliferative response to barotraumas and may explain the paramount importance of aggressive risk factor modification strategies. Neointimal neoatherosclerosis as identified by FD-OCT may have a role in the development of below-the-knee restenosis and thus warrants further investigation by larger controlled studies. Moreover, it may prove clinically useful for the determination of intrastent tissue prolapse and strut malapposition. FD-OCT should not be utilized as a tool for routine clinical practice until evidence from further clinical trials emerge to determine the specific indications for OCT imaging of the peripheral arteries.