Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Entwicklung neuer Substanzen für die Gentherapie. Diese beinhaltet die Behebung von erblich bedingten Krankheiten wie z.B. Mucoviscidose. Dabei werden im Zellkern defekte Gene durch normale, gesunde DNA-Sequenzen ersetzt. Zur Einschleusung des Genmaterials in die Zellen (Transfektion) werden geeignete Transport-Systeme bzw. Methoden benötigt, die dort die Freisetzung der neu einzubauenden Gene (Genexpression ausgedrückt in Transfektionseffizienzen) gestatten. Hierfür wurden neue Polykation-DNA-Komplexe (Vektoren) auf Basis kationischer Polymere wie Poly(ethylenimin) (PEI) hergestellt, charakterisiert und nachfolgend in Transfektionsversuchen an verschiedenen Zelllinien eingesetzt.<br> Sowohl das kationische Ausgangspolymer PEI als auch das Pfropfcopolymer PEI-g-PEO (PEO-Seitenketten zur Erhöhung der Biokompatibilität) wurden mit Rezeptorliganden modifiziert, um eine verbesserte und spezifische Transfektion an ausgesuchten Zellen zu erreichen. Als Liganden wurden Folsäure (Transfektion an HeLa-Zellen), Triiod-L-thyronin (HepG2-Zellen) und die Uronsäuren der Galactose, Mannose, Glucose sowie die Lactobionsäure (HeLa-, HepG2- und 16HBE-Zellen) verwendet.<br> Das PEI, die Pfropfcopolymere PEI-g-PEO und die Ligand-funktionalisierten Copolymere wurden hinsichtlich ihrer chemischen Zusammensetzung und molekularen Parameter charakterisiert. Die Molmassenuntersuchungen mittels Größenausschlusschromatographie zeigten, dass nach der Synthese unterschiedliche Polymerfraktionen mit nicht einheitlicher chemischer Zusammensetzung vorlagen.<br> Die anschließenden Transfektionsversuche wurden mit Hilfe einer speziellen DNA (Luciferase) an den Zelllinien HepG2 (Leberkrebszellen), HeLa (Gebärmutterhalskrebszellen) und 16HBE (Atemwegsepithelzellen) durchgeführt. Die T3(Triiod-L-thyronin)-Vektoren zeigten in Abhängigkeit vom eingesetzten Komplexverhältnis Polykation/DNA ein Maximum in der Transfektion an HepG2-Zellen. Die Hypothese der rezeptorvermittelten Endozytose ließ sich durch entsprechende T3-Überschuss-Experimente und Fluoreszenzmikroskopie-Untersuchungen bestätigen. Dagegen konnte bei den Folsäure-Vektoren keine rezeptorvermittelte Endozytose beobachtet werden.<br> Bei den Vektoren mit Mannuronsäure-Ligand (Man) konnte an allen drei Zelllinien (HepG2, HeLa, 16HBE) eine konstante, hohe Transfereffizienz nachgewiesen werden. Sie waren bei allen eingesetzten Polymer-DNA-Verhältnissen effizienter als der Vergleichsvektor PEI. Dieses Transfektionsverhalten ließ sich durch Blockierung der Zuckerstruktur unterbinden. In Transfektionsexperimenten mit einem Überschuss an freier Mannuronsäure und fluoreszenzmikroskopischen Untersuchungen konnte eine rezeptorvermittelte Endozytose der Man-Vektoren an den o.g. Zelllinien nachgewiesen werden. Die anderen Uronsäure-Konjugate zeigten keine signifikanten Abweichungen im Transfektionsverhalten im Vergleich zum PEI-Vektor. / The goal of this work was the development of new non-viral gene transfer systems for the somatic gene therapy. For these non-viral gene vectors (polycation-DNA-complexes) on the base of ligand-functionalized polycations were synthesized, characterized and tested in transfection trials on different cell cultures (HepG2, HeLa, 16HBE).<br> In preliminary investigations PEI-g-PEO copolymers with different grafting densities of poly(ethylene oxide) PEO8 were synthesized and characterized. This was followed by modification of PEI and the copolymer PEI-g-PEO(20) with specific receptor ligands for transfection studies to the cell lines mentioned above. Folic acid (transfection at HeLa cells), triiodo-L-thyronine (HepG2 cells) and the uronic acids of galactose, mannose, glucose as well as the lactobionic acid (HeLa, HepG2 and 16HBE cells) were used as ligands. The coupling of the ligands was performed either without a spacer or via PEO side chains and was realized by carbodiimids.<br> The PEI and the grafted copolymers PEI-g-PEO as well as the ligand-functionalized copolymers were characterized regarding to their chemical composition and molecular parameters. Molar masses from sedimentation rate experiments of the AUC were obtained within the range of 35000 to 70000 g/mol. The molar mass investigations by means of SEC-MALLS revealed that after the grafting process both copolymers with heterogeneous chemical composition and unmodified PEI were present. The polydispersity of all PEI-g-PEO(20) based copolymers increased significantly compared with unmodified PEI. The molar masses increased with higher conversion degree as expected. The highly-substituted products exhibited an increasingly more compact structure in aqueous solution.<br> The following transfection studies were accomplished with the help of a luciferase reporter genes at the cultures HepG2 (liver cancer cells), HeLa (cervix cancer cells) and 16HBE (lung epithelium cells). The grafted copolymers PEI-g-PEO were compared to the unmodified PEI vector in transfection experiments. Here an almost identical transfer efficiency compared to the unmodified PEI vector could be maintained accompanied by reduced toxicity up to a PEO content of 17% w/w.<br> Folic acid copolymers were tested on HeLa cells in further vector studies. All folic acid vectors showed a maximum in the transfection at a N/P ratio (complex of polycation with DNA) of 2.5 and/or 5.0, which refers to a receptor-mediated endocytosis. However, no receptor-mediated endocytosis was observed in transfection.<br> A similar transfection behavior was observed with the T3 vectors on HepG2 cells dependent on the N/P ratio. The hypothetical receptor-mediated endocytosis could be confirmed within the T3-functionalized vectors by appropriate T3 excess experiments. Herein the transfer efficiency of the T3 gene vectors decreased significantly while adding free low-molecular weight triiodo-L-thyronine. In contrast to this the transfer efficiency of the unmodified PEI vector decreased only negligibly. A receptor-mediated endocytosis was also confirmed by fluorescence microscopy investigation of T3-functionalized aminodextranes at transfection of HepG2 cells. Subsequently, the T3 vectors were tested at mice in vivo. Here high transfer efficiencies in comparison to the unmodified PEI vector were determined particularly in the spleen as well as in the kidneys and thyroid. The T3 vectors should be suitable for a gene transfer into hepatocytes.<br> The vectors with uronic acid conjugates as ligands (galacturonic-, glucuronic and lactobionic acid) did not show significant deviations in the transfer efficiencies compared with the PEI vector. In contrast to this the vectors with mannuronic acid exhibit a constant high transfer efficiency at the three cell cultures HepG2, HeLa and 16HBE. They are more efficient than the PEI vector over the examined N/P range. Here the transfection proceeds independently of the charge of the complex (N/P ratio). This transfection behavior could be prevented by blocking the glycosidic OH groups of the Man vector. A receptor-mediated endocytosis of the Man vectors at the three examined cell lines (HepG2, HeLa, 16HBE) could be verified by means of transfection experiments with an excess of free mannuronic acid and fluorescence microscopic investigations.<br> In continuing studies new gene vectors on the base of cationic starch graft copolymers were synthesized and tested in transfection studies at HepG2 and 16HBE cells. Beyond that peptide-functionalized PEI vectors, which exhibit a nuclear localization sequence (TAT), were established and their transfection in vitro was determined. Compared to the PEI vector lower transfections of the vectors on the base of cationic starch graft copolymers was observed. However, an increase is expected by coupling with T3 and mannuronic acid ligands.

Resumo: Este texto foca as relações de poder-saber e os dispositivos advindos de tais relações que se põem diante do desenvolvimento de práticas educativas constituídas a partir de cenários investigativos, com o propósito de intervir em problemas socioambientais locais. Tais práticas são apresentadas, a partir de um viés libertário, como forma de afrontamento e desestabilização aos dispositivos de controle do ensino tradicional de matemática, que serve à pedagogia panóptica e à ideologia do capital, defensora de uma educação voltada para o consumo. Os objetivos destas práticas são: estrategicamente, subverter o que está posto pelo modelo panóptico de educação; taticamente, pensando globalmente e agindo localmente, intervindo em problemas locais para minimizar os impactos socioambientais que degradam o planeta e nos submetem a valores, preconceitos e discursos de submissão e não-liberdade. Mais do que um grito em prol da liberdade, as práticas propostas visam romper com valores que nos atrelam ao instinto de rebanho comprometendo-se com a construção de conhecimentos em prol da liberdade — enquanto fim. O respeito à vida, ao indivíduo e, conseqüentemente, ao meio ambiente são princípios balizadores deste trabalho, da mesma forma que o afrontamento ao autoritarismo. / Abstract: This thesis focuses on power-knowledge relations and the control mechanisms that are in place in those relations, relations that oppose the development of educational practices built within investigative landscapes, proposed with the aim of intervening on socio and environmental local problems. Such practices are presented from a libertarian perspective, as a way to confront and destabilize the control mechanisms of traditional mathematics teaching, which serves a panoptical pedagogy and the ideology of the Capital. The objectives of those practices are: strategically, to subvert what is pushed by the panoptical educational model; tactically, to think globally and to act locally, intervening on local problems, aiming at minimizing the social and environmental impact of situations that degrade life in the planet and subject us to values, prejudices and discourses of submission and non-freedom. More than a cry for freedom, the proposed practices want to break links that attach us to the instinct of herd, committing themselves with the production of knowledge in favor of freedom taken as an end. Respect for life, the individual and, consequently, the environment, are the principles guiding this work, as well as confronting authoritarianism. / Orientador: Romulo Campos Lins / Coorientador: João Frederico da Costa Azevedo Meyer / Banca: Sonia Maria Clareto / Banca: Antonio Vicente Marafioti Garnica / Banca: Antonio Vidal Nunes / Banca: Romualdo Dias / Doutor

Introduction: Cryptosporidium parvum is one of the most common causes of diarrhea worldwide in neonatal calves. This pathogen is also life-threatening in malnourished children and immunodeficient patients. There is no vaccine and a single drug nitazoxanide (NTZ), of only the moderate efficacy has been approved by FDA for cryptosporidiosis treatment in human. Octaarginine is known to facilitate the transport of other molecules across cell membranes and has been use to transfect protozoan organisms. It is also proposed to increase the efficacy of drugs against intracellular pathogens. Aims of the study: The capacity of octaarginine to support transfection of C. parvum as an alternative to electroporation was evaluated. Furthermore, it was studied whether octaarginine covalently bound to NTZ (NTZ-R8) improves efficacy against the parasite. Animals, materials and methods: FAM-octaarginine was added to either intact oocysts, short-time excystation exposed (STE) oocysts, excysted sporozoites, intracellular stages of C. parvum to assess the permeability of the Cryptosporidium membrane to the peptide. The optimal conditions for condensation of plasmid for transfection experiments were evaluated by testing different N/P ratios applying by gel retardation assay. The transfection complex octaarginine/polyethyleneimine (PEI)/DNA was also incubated with intact oocysts, STE oocysts, and excysted sporozoites. Transfected parasites were transferred to HCT-8 cell cultures and further incubated for 24 h. Immunoflourescence assay (IFA) was performed to detect successfully transfected parasites. To evaluate the suitability of octaarginine as a vehicle supporting transport of NTZ across membranes, octaarginine was coupled to NTZ to produce NTZ-R8. Cryptosporidium oocysts were inoculated into HCT-8 cell monolayers in the presence of NTZ and NTZ-R8 at concentrations of 1, 5, 10, 50, 100 or 1000 ng/ml. Parasite growth was monitored by RT- qPCR after RNA extraction from C. parvum exposed HTC-8 cell cultures. RT-qPCR was performed on the target gene 18S rRNA of Cryptosporidium and normalized to the expression of the housekeeping gene 18S rRNA of host cells. To evaluate the efficacy of NTZ-R8 in vivo, IFN-γ knockout mice were orally inoculated with 1000 oocysts each, except for the non-infected controls. Infected mice were treated with NTZ (10 mg/kg BW) or NTZ-R8 (2 mg/kg BW) in 7 days. The efficacy of treatment was evaluated by oocyst excretion, survival rate, clinical symptoms, and histopathological changes in the ileum. Results: Octaarginine easily penetrated into Cryptosporidium sporozoites and STE oocysts, and intracellular stages while the membrane of intact oocysts remained impermeable. The optimal N/P ratio for the full DNA plasmid condensation starts from 10 when octaarginine was also added to the complex. Successful transfection of excysted sporozoites and STE oocysts was observed with only 1µg plasmid in the transfection complex. Transfection was not achieve when intact oocysts were used. The half-maximal inhibition concentration (IC50) of NTZ and NTZ-R8 was 60.54 ng/ml (197 nM) and 4.499 ng/ml (2.9 nM), respectively. Therefore, octaarginine significantly improved inhibition C. parvum growth by NTZ around 68 times (P < 0.05). During in vivo studies, it was observed that infected mice displayed symptoms of cryptosporidiosis such as anorexia, weight loss and ruffled fur. Mice treated with NTZ at 10 mg/kg BW displayed in 40% survival while mice treated with NTZ-R8 at 2 mg/ kg BW showed a distinctly higher survival rate of 80%, albeit non- significant (P > 0.05). Conclusion: DNA condensation by PEI and DNA delivery by octaarginine allows simple and rapid transfection that requires a small amount of plasmid DNA only and does not depend on sophisticated equipment. Best results were obtained using STE oocysts. Octaarginine also successfully transported the anticryptosporidial compound NTZ into extracellular and intracellular stages of C. parvum and is therefore a suitable vehicle for drug delivery, thus being a promising tool for improvement of treatment efficacy.

M. Tech. (Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences), Vaal University of Technology. / Water scarcity due to limited resources and pollution of the little available water by organic and inorganic contaminants remains as one of the critical issues of the 21st century. Several treatment methods have been developed, with some being used successfully at industrial scale but many challenges including secondary sludge generation, high operation costs, high maintenance costs and high energy input were observed. In this study, the adsorption process was explored as an effective means for the removal of Cr(VI) ions from aqueous solution due to its economic feasibility and use of abundantly available adsorbents. Amongst the many available adsorbents, this work focused on exploring functionalized activated carbons (ACs) as adsorbents for Cr(VI) ions due to their favorable adsorption characteristics which involve large surface area, high porosity, and high radiant stability. The iron oxide functionalized polyethyleneimine activated carbon-silica composites were prepared through co-precipitation of Fe(II) and Fe(III) over Macadamia activated carbon to form the AC-Fe3O4 co-shell which was reacted with tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS) and the polyethyleneimine (PEI). The different adsorbents prepared were labelled AC-Fe3O4, AC-Fe3O4-SiO2 and AC-Fe3O4-SiO2-PEI. The adsorbents were further characterized using elemental analysis (CHNS), thermo gravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET), transmission electron spectroscopy (TEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). FTIR displayed successful attachment of Fe3O4 and SiO2 with bands at 404 and 786 cm-1 being assigned to the asymmetric vibration of Fe-O and Si-O-Si while the asymmetric stretch of Si-OH is observed at 1066 cm-1. XRD showed the presence of magnetite particles in the adsorbents confirmed by the JCPDS 00-019-0629. EDS revealed the presence of Fe, Si, and N atoms which can relate to successful incorporation of the desired functional groups. Each of these materials were evaluated for their Cr(VI) ion removal through batch adsorption experiments where one parameter at a time was varied while all others were fixed. The parameters investigated included the effect of pH, contact time, initials Cr(VI) concentration, adsorbent dosage concentration and temperature. The optimum conditions were obtained at pH 3, initial concentration 2.5 mg/L, contact time of 120 min for AC-Fe3O4-SiO2-PEI. The optimization of each parameter was done in order to determine the conditions in which the adsorbents work best in the uptake of Cr(VI). All the three studied adsorbents showed acceptable adsorption performance for the removal of Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions. Adsorption isotherms studied confirmed that the adsorption data in all the three adsorbents fitted well into the Langmuir isotherm, demonstrating a homogeneous monolayer coverage. Regarding the kinetic studies, the adsorption data were best described by the pseudo-second order rate model with R2 values of 0.974, 0.974 and 0.962 for AC-Fe3O4, AC-Fe3O4-SiO2 and AC-Fe3O4-SiO2-PEI, respectively. The adsorption capacity observed from the present study (6.62, 3.92 and 5.48 for AC-Fe3O4, AC-Fe3O4-SiO2 and AC-Fe3O4-SiO2-PEI, respectively) were satisfactory and suitable as compared to those reported in literature. Thermodynamics data of the adsorption processes revealed a feasible spontaneous endothermic adsorption process which also confirmed that the reaction process occurred through chemisorption.

In dieser Arbeit werden Untersuchungen an selbstorganisierten, tubulären J-Aggregaten amphiphiler Cyaninfarbstoffe, 3,3’-bis(2-sulfopropyl)-5,5’,6,6’-tetrachloro-1,1’-dioctylbenzimidacarbocyanine, im Weiteren C8S3 genannt, dargestellt. Ziel der Arbeit ist es an die Aggregate eine Lage Polyelektrolyte zu adsorbieren, sowie nachzuweisen, dass diese Methode geeignet ist, um einen Energietransfers zwischen dem Aggregat und funktionellen Gruppen in der Adsorbatschicht zu erreichen. Die tubulären Aggregate sind supramolekulare Strukturen, die sich spontan und selbstorganisiert aufgrund des amphiphilen Charakters der Cyaninfarbstoffe in wässrigen Lösungen bilden. Die Farbstoffe ordnen sich in einer Doppelschicht an, die die Wand der Röhren bildet mit etwa 13 nm Durchmesser und Längen bis zu 1 µm und mehr. Die Aggregate bilden exzitonische Anregungen aus, die sich in einer typischen Rotverschiebung (J-Aggregat) der optischen Absorption sowie einer charakteristischen Aufspaltung in mehrere schmale Banden zeigt. Die negative Oberflächenladung der Aggregate wird genutzt, um positiv geladene Polyelektrolyte (PE) anzulagern. Drei exemplarische PE, die sich in Ladungsdichte und Persistenzlänge unterscheiden, werden untersucht. In allen drei Fällen ist es gelungen Aggregate mit einer 2-3 nm dicken Polyelektrolytschicht zu umhüllen, wobei die molekulare Ordnung der Aggregate nur geringfügig gestört wird. Durch Einsatz von Farbstoffdotierten Polyelektrolyten konnten Experimente zum Nachweis des Förster-Energietransfer durchgeführt werden. Die Farbstoffdotierungen sind kovalent an die PE gebunden, wodurch sie in der PE-Umhüllung lokalisiert sind. Durch Wahl geeigneter Farbstoffe konnte ein Energietransfer vom Farbstoff (Donator) zum Aggregat als auch umgekehrt vom Aggregat zum Farbstoff (Akzeptor) nachgewiesen werden. Es ergeben sich hohe Transferraten, da die Farbstoffe in der PE-Schicht deutlich dichter am Aggregat liegen, als die theoretisch berechneten Förster-Radien. / The following dissertation deals with investigation on tubular J-aggregates of amphiphile cyanine-dyes, 3,3’-bis(2-sulfopropyl)-5,5’,6,6’-tetrachloro-1,1’-dioctylbenzimidacarbocyanine (C8S3). Aim of this work is to adsorb a layer of polyelectrolyte on C8S3-aggregates and to proof the capability of this method to establish an energy-transfer between the aggregate and functional groups in the adsorbate-layer. The tubular aggregates are supramolecular structures, that form entirely spontaneous and self-organized due to amphiphilic character of the investigated cyanine-dye derivative in aqueous solution. These dyes arrange themselves in a double-layer, assembling the hull of the tubular structure, with outer tube-diameters of approximately 13 nm and length of more than 1 µm. Due to the regular and dense arrangement of the dyes excitonic excitation establishs with the structure, that causes a J-aggregate typical red-shift in absorption and a characteristic band-splitting. The aggregates offer a negative surface-charge in aqueous solution. This is utilized to adsorb oppositely charged polyelectrolytes (PE) by electrostatic adsorption. It is shown exemplarily for three different kinds of PE that differ in charge-density and persistence-length. In all three cases a successful PE-wrapping of 2-3 nm thickness has been performed. The molecular order within the aggregates has been disturbed only weakly. Dye-labelled PE experiments proof Förster-energytransfer. The dye-labels are covalently bound to PE, fixing and localizing the labels in the wrapping-layer. With appropriate dye-labels an energy-transfer from labels in the coating (donor) towards the aggregate and vice versa, from aggregate to the dye-labels (acceptor) has been revealed. Caused by the localisation of the labels within the PE-coating, the distances of aggregate and label are always smaller than the theoretically calculated Förster-radii, resulting in a high efficiency of the transfer-rates.

A partir de 2003, a política externa brasileira retomou mais claramente o padrão verificado entre 1930 e 1980. O Estado voltou a assumir papel fundamental no processo de desenvolvimento, como indutor da economia, priorizando o que se chamou de social-desenvolvimentismo. As aspirações do país mudaram e o universalismo, já consolidado, passou a protagonismo nas principais questões internacionais. A inovação consiste na ênfase com que o Governo Lula passou a defender a reforma social, tanto interna quanto externa. A premissa filosófica de que parte a atual administração é de que há uma relação simbiótica entre aquelas dimensões, e a solução dos problemas internos está condicionada ao reforço da posição do Brasil no sistema internacional. Como a justiça social encontra-se na base da atual gestão, identificaram-se elementos que possibilitam afirmar que a política externa do Governo Lula encontra seu mais aproximado comparativo na Política Externa Independente (PEI). Por tal proximidade, e também por razões didáticas, o atual período é denominado Nova Política Externa Independente (Nova PEI). A estratégia pode ser avaliada segundo os principais eixos táticos adotados a partir de 2003, que encontram correspondência nos eixos táticos da PEI: democracia e multilateralismo, comércio internacional, cooperação Sul-Sul e justiça social. Democracia e Multilateralismo e Comércio Internacional são objetivos, determinados por um instrumento do qual dependem para ser atingidos, a Cooperação Sul-Sul. Como síntese, o eixo Justiça Social é considerado a filosofia que permeia discurso e ação da Nova PEI. Trata-se de um processo de renovação da atuação brasileira para que se torne protagonista nas questões globais. Com a intenção de facilitar a delimitação da Nova PEI, será feita comparação detalhada com a PEI. Nela encontra origem, mas sua originalidade deriva da combinação dos eixos mencionados com a nova configuração do sistema internacional. Após a indicação dos limites característicos de ambas, o resumo das idéias compiladas e das idéias aqui arriscadas buscará indicar os desafios que a política externa brasileira enfrentará no século que se inicia. Finalmente, questiona-se se é possível uma diplomacia para o desenvolvimento no século XXI. / Since 2003, Brazilian foreign policy recovered more clearly the pattern verified between 1930 and 1980. The State once again adopted a fundamental role in the development process, leading the economy towards the so called social development process. The goals of the country have changed and the universalism, already settled, supported the effort for the country to become a real protagonist in the main international issues. The innovation consists in the emphasis that the Lula Administration put in the social reform, both internal and external. The philosophical premise that bases the current administration is that there is a mutual relationship between those dimensions, and that the solution of the internal problems is conditioned to the strengthening of the Brazilian position in the international system. Considering that social justice is a ground to this administration, some elements have been identified that make it possible to compare President Lula’s foreign policy with the Independent Foreign Policy from the early sixties (Política Externa Independente – PEI). For this similarity, but also for didactical purposes, the current period is named New Independent Foreign Policy (Nova Política Externa Independente – Nova PEI). For this similarity, but also for didactical purposes, the current period is named New Independent Foreign Policy (Nova Política Externa Independente – Nova PEI). The strategy must be evaluated according to the main tactical lines adopted since 2003, and that correspond to PEI’s tactical lines: democracy and multilateralism, international trade, South-South cooperation and social justice. Democracy and Multilateralism are goals, determined by an instrument on which they depend to be fulfilled, South-South cooperation. As a synthesis, Social Justice is considered the philosophy that underlies “Nova PEI’s” discourse and action. It is a renovation process of the Brazilian role to make the country a protagonist in global matters. Having in mind the intention to ease the understanding of Nova PeI, it will be constructed a comparison to PEI, in which it finds its origins. But its originality derives from the combination of the tactical lines mentioned related to the configuration of the international system. After pointing the limits of both policies, the summary of the ideas gathered will risk to try and indicate the challenges the Brazilian foreign policy will face in the new century. Finally, it will be considered if it is possible a diplomacy for development in this century.

University of Macau / Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities / Department of Government and Public Administration

A partir de 2003, a política externa brasileira retomou mais claramente o padrão verificado entre 1930 e 1980. O Estado voltou a assumir papel fundamental no processo de desenvolvimento, como indutor da economia, priorizando o que se chamou de social-desenvolvimentismo. As aspirações do país mudaram e o universalismo, já consolidado, passou a protagonismo nas principais questões internacionais. A inovação consiste na ênfase com que o Governo Lula passou a defender a reforma social, tanto interna quanto externa. A premissa filosófica de que parte a atual administração é de que há uma relação simbiótica entre aquelas dimensões, e a solução dos problemas internos está condicionada ao reforço da posição do Brasil no sistema internacional. Como a justiça social encontra-se na base da atual gestão, identificaram-se elementos que possibilitam afirmar que a política externa do Governo Lula encontra seu mais aproximado comparativo na Política Externa Independente (PEI). Por tal proximidade, e também por razões didáticas, o atual período é denominado Nova Política Externa Independente (Nova PEI). A estratégia pode ser avaliada segundo os principais eixos táticos adotados a partir de 2003, que encontram correspondência nos eixos táticos da PEI: democracia e multilateralismo, comércio internacional, cooperação Sul-Sul e justiça social. Democracia e Multilateralismo e Comércio Internacional são objetivos, determinados por um instrumento do qual dependem para ser atingidos, a Cooperação Sul-Sul. Como síntese, o eixo Justiça Social é considerado a filosofia que permeia discurso e ação da Nova PEI. Trata-se de um processo de renovação da atuação brasileira para que se torne protagonista nas questões globais. Com a intenção de facilitar a delimitação da Nova PEI, será feita comparação detalhada com a PEI. Nela encontra origem, mas sua originalidade deriva da combinação dos eixos mencionados com a nova configuração do sistema internacional. Após a indicação dos limites característicos de ambas, o resumo das idéias compiladas e das idéias aqui arriscadas buscará indicar os desafios que a política externa brasileira enfrentará no século que se inicia. Finalmente, questiona-se se é possível uma diplomacia para o desenvolvimento no século XXI. / Since 2003, Brazilian foreign policy recovered more clearly the pattern verified between 1930 and 1980. The State once again adopted a fundamental role in the development process, leading the economy towards the so called social development process. The goals of the country have changed and the universalism, already settled, supported the effort for the country to become a real protagonist in the main international issues. The innovation consists in the emphasis that the Lula Administration put in the social reform, both internal and external. The philosophical premise that bases the current administration is that there is a mutual relationship between those dimensions, and that the solution of the internal problems is conditioned to the strengthening of the Brazilian position in the international system. Considering that social justice is a ground to this administration, some elements have been identified that make it possible to compare President Lula’s foreign policy with the Independent Foreign Policy from the early sixties (Política Externa Independente – PEI). For this similarity, but also for didactical purposes, the current period is named New Independent Foreign Policy (Nova Política Externa Independente – Nova PEI). For this similarity, but also for didactical purposes, the current period is named New Independent Foreign Policy (Nova Política Externa Independente – Nova PEI). The strategy must be evaluated according to the main tactical lines adopted since 2003, and that correspond to PEI’s tactical lines: democracy and multilateralism, international trade, South-South cooperation and social justice. Democracy and Multilateralism are goals, determined by an instrument on which they depend to be fulfilled, South-South cooperation. As a synthesis, Social Justice is considered the philosophy that underlies “Nova PEI’s” discourse and action. It is a renovation process of the Brazilian role to make the country a protagonist in global matters. Having in mind the intention to ease the understanding of Nova PeI, it will be constructed a comparison to PEI, in which it finds its origins. But its originality derives from the combination of the tactical lines mentioned related to the configuration of the international system. After pointing the limits of both policies, the summary of the ideas gathered will risk to try and indicate the challenges the Brazilian foreign policy will face in the new century. Finally, it will be considered if it is possible a diplomacy for development in this century.

A partir de 2003, a política externa brasileira retomou mais claramente o padrão verificado entre 1930 e 1980. O Estado voltou a assumir papel fundamental no processo de desenvolvimento, como indutor da economia, priorizando o que se chamou de social-desenvolvimentismo. As aspirações do país mudaram e o universalismo, já consolidado, passou a protagonismo nas principais questões internacionais. A inovação consiste na ênfase com que o Governo Lula passou a defender a reforma social, tanto interna quanto externa. A premissa filosófica de que parte a atual administração é de que há uma relação simbiótica entre aquelas dimensões, e a solução dos problemas internos está condicionada ao reforço da posição do Brasil no sistema internacional. Como a justiça social encontra-se na base da atual gestão, identificaram-se elementos que possibilitam afirmar que a política externa do Governo Lula encontra seu mais aproximado comparativo na Política Externa Independente (PEI). Por tal proximidade, e também por razões didáticas, o atual período é denominado Nova Política Externa Independente (Nova PEI). A estratégia pode ser avaliada segundo os principais eixos táticos adotados a partir de 2003, que encontram correspondência nos eixos táticos da PEI: democracia e multilateralismo, comércio internacional, cooperação Sul-Sul e justiça social. Democracia e Multilateralismo e Comércio Internacional são objetivos, determinados por um instrumento do qual dependem para ser atingidos, a Cooperação Sul-Sul. Como síntese, o eixo Justiça Social é considerado a filosofia que permeia discurso e ação da Nova PEI. Trata-se de um processo de renovação da atuação brasileira para que se torne protagonista nas questões globais. Com a intenção de facilitar a delimitação da Nova PEI, será feita comparação detalhada com a PEI. Nela encontra origem, mas sua originalidade deriva da combinação dos eixos mencionados com a nova configuração do sistema internacional. Após a indicação dos limites característicos de ambas, o resumo das idéias compiladas e das idéias aqui arriscadas buscará indicar os desafios que a política externa brasileira enfrentará no século que se inicia. Finalmente, questiona-se se é possível uma diplomacia para o desenvolvimento no século XXI. / Since 2003, Brazilian foreign policy recovered more clearly the pattern verified between 1930 and 1980. The State once again adopted a fundamental role in the development process, leading the economy towards the so called social development process. The goals of the country have changed and the universalism, already settled, supported the effort for the country to become a real protagonist in the main international issues. The innovation consists in the emphasis that the Lula Administration put in the social reform, both internal and external. The philosophical premise that bases the current administration is that there is a mutual relationship between those dimensions, and that the solution of the internal problems is conditioned to the strengthening of the Brazilian position in the international system. Considering that social justice is a ground to this administration, some elements have been identified that make it possible to compare President Lula’s foreign policy with the Independent Foreign Policy from the early sixties (Política Externa Independente – PEI). For this similarity, but also for didactical purposes, the current period is named New Independent Foreign Policy (Nova Política Externa Independente – Nova PEI). For this similarity, but also for didactical purposes, the current period is named New Independent Foreign Policy (Nova Política Externa Independente – Nova PEI). The strategy must be evaluated according to the main tactical lines adopted since 2003, and that correspond to PEI’s tactical lines: democracy and multilateralism, international trade, South-South cooperation and social justice. Democracy and Multilateralism are goals, determined by an instrument on which they depend to be fulfilled, South-South cooperation. As a synthesis, Social Justice is considered the philosophy that underlies “Nova PEI’s” discourse and action. It is a renovation process of the Brazilian role to make the country a protagonist in global matters. Having in mind the intention to ease the understanding of Nova PeI, it will be constructed a comparison to PEI, in which it finds its origins. But its originality derives from the combination of the tactical lines mentioned related to the configuration of the international system. After pointing the limits of both policies, the summary of the ideas gathered will risk to try and indicate the challenges the Brazilian foreign policy will face in the new century. Finally, it will be considered if it is possible a diplomacy for development in this century.

自十八世紀工業革命發生後，西方社會產生了急遽的變化。新的生產方式必需要有新知識與新技術的人才加以配合，這也使得西方的人才培育有了新的發展方向，職業教育(Vocational Education)即是因應此種環境下所產生的教育體制。 十九世紀中葉後，中國在內外交侵的情況下，社會經濟文化等各方面也開始了一連串的變動，新的觀念不斷衝擊著傳統中國，舊有的教育制度受到抨擊，新的人才觀念因應而起，實業教育也在一連串的改革變動中被帶進中國來。實業教育的推展主要目標在使中國經濟得到發展，國家得以因此富強，但此套制度的推行後卻發現整體社會經濟並未隨之發展，反而出現人才不能為社會所用的窘境，以教育作為社會引導的理想顯然未能實現。在實業教育倍受檢討的過程中，開始有知識分子提出職業教育的理念，認為教育推行應該要符合社會現狀，個人生計滿足後社會經濟才得以發展。從實業教育轉化為職業教育代表著知識分子對於教育與社會發展關係已有不同看法。本文藉由晚清實業觀念與實業教育思想的提出，藉以瞭解近代中國對於社會經濟觀念的轉變；同時也藉由實業學堂的設置及畢業生出路情形，對於教育與社會發展之間的關係進行討論，並以日本實業教育發展做為參酌，將兩者關係進行更深入的了解。 / After the Industrial Revolution occurred in 18th Century, western society had been changed abruptly. New manufacture mechanism required new knowledge and new techniques cooperated. It conducted the western countries a new direction of talent cultivation. After the middle period of 19th century, China suffered from the upheaval caused by both homeland and foreign countries. The late empire was impelled to begin a series of alteration. Meanwhile, as the influences of western ideology, the traditional education system was getting criticism. The society needed all kinds of talents, therefore, the industrial education was conducted to improve the occasion. The intellectuals relied on the developing of industrial education to save empire, not only for the heavy industry but also the light one, thus the economics of the country could be improved. But the results fell short of expectations. Many graduates of industrial schools could not find jobs and also the economics did not have bettered. The ideal that the new educational system implemented in order to elevate the development of country economics was disillusioned. In this situation, some intellectuals changed their avocation from industrial education to vocational education, which emphasizes the importance of the consistency between educational practice and social demands. And the country economics would grow up after the people could satisfy their livelihood. Because of the transition from industrial education to vocational education, it represented the Chinese intellectuals had had different mind on the relationship between the development of modern society and education implement.