Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Rays (UHECR) can only be measured by the detection of Extensive Air Showers (EAS) created by the interaction of the cosmic ray particle with an atmospheric nuclei. The inference of some of the properties of UHECR, like their mass composition, is only possible by the comparison of measurements of EAS observables to predictions from Monte Carlo simulations. The most important source of uncertainties on the description of EAS by the simulations is the modeling of hadronic interactions. For many years it has been known that the hadronic interaction models fail on predicting the EAS observables related to their muonic component. The most evident manifestation of that is called muon deficit problem due to the fact that the number of muons in EAS with energies above 1018 eV predicted by simulations is smaller than the observed ones. The aim of this thesis is to approach this problem in three distinct fronts. First, a method is developed to interpret measurements of number of muons in terms of cosmic rays composition in despite of the muon deficit problem. Second, an EAS observable which is sensitive to the muon energy spectrum at ground and, consequently, can be used to constrain hadronic interaction models is proposed and tested. Third and final, the muon production in air showers is studied through measurements of hadron production spectra in pion-carbon interactions. / Raios Cósmicos Ultra Energéticos (Ultra-High Energy Cosmic Rays, UHECR) somente podem ser medidos através da detecção dos Chuveiros Atmosféricos Extensos (Extensive Air Showers, EAS) criados pela interação do raio cósmico primário com núcleos atmoféricos. A inferência de algumas propriedados dos UHECRs, como a composição de massa, é possível somente através da comparação entre medidas de observáveis dos EASs com predições geradas por simulações de Monte Carlo. A fonte de incerteza mais importante na descrição de EAS por simulações é a modelagem das interações hadrônicas. Por muitos anos é sabido que os modelos de interação hadrônica falham na predição de observáveis dos EASs relacionados a sua componente muônica. A manifestação mais evidente disso é chamada problema do déficit de múons devido ao fato que o número de múons em chuveiros com energias acima de 1018 eV predito por simulações é menor que os observados. O objetivo desta tese é abordar este problema através de três frentes. Primeiramente, um método é desenvolvido para interpretar as medidas do número de múons em termos de composição de raios cósmicos considerando o problema do déficit de múons. Segundo, a proposta e o teste de um observável que é sensível ao espectro de energia dos múons na superfície e, consequentemente, pode ser usado para discriminar entre os modelos de interação hadrônica. Por último, a produção de múons em chuveiros é estudada através de medidas do espectro de produção de hádrons em interações do tipo píon-carbono.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden wesentliche Einflussfaktoren auf die Entwicklung von hochstämmigen, extensiv gepflegten Obstbäumen untersucht. Der direkte Einfluss von Klimafaktoren auf die Entwicklung der Gehölze konnte nachgewiesen werden. Dazu wurden neue Klimakennziffern definiert und durch dendrochronologische Untersuchungen Beziehungen zum Wachstum der Gehölze hergestellt. Weiterhin konnten komplexe Wechselwirkungen von klimatischen Einflüssen, Bodenwasserverhältnissen und dem Resistenzverhalten der Bäume gegenüber Winterkälte aufgezeigt werden. Für die hochstämmigen Obstbäume wurden in dem Zeitraum von mehr als 120 Jahren klima- und standortabhängige Negativ- und Positivweiserjahre aufgezeigt. Die Beziehungen zwischen den vegetativen Leistungen der Bäume und den Boden-/ und Bodenwasserverhältnissen wurden an ca. 50- , 100- und 200 jährigen Apfelbäumen untersucht und Zusammenhänge zu den Bewertungsmodellen der Reichsbodenschätzung (Bodenarten) und der Mittelmaßstäbigen landwirtschaftlichen Standortkartierung der DDR (Leitbodenformen) dargestellt. Die Gehölze zeigten standortabhängig unterschiedliche Wachstumsintensitäten. Die höchsten Zuwachsleistungen wurden an Grund- bzw. Stauwasser beeinflussten Standorten erzielt. Der Einfluss der Bodenarten an Wasser beeinflussten Standorten war innerhalb der Obstarten gering, zeigte aber Obstart spezifische Unterschiede. Die Apfelbäume erreichten auf sand- bzw. lehmüberlagerten Tonstandorten höhere Zuwachsleistungen als auf Deckton-Standorten. Bei der Obstart Birne waren die Wuchsleistungen auf Tonböden höher als an sand- bzw. lehmüberlagerten Tonstandorten. Wuchsdepressionen traten bei der Obstart Birne erst bei schweren Tonstandorten auf. Die Bedeutung der Leitbodenformen und Bodenarten trat an den Grund- bzw. Stauwasser fernen Standorten deutlich hervor. Von den untersuchten Leitbodenformen wiesen die Tieflehm- Fahlerden unabhängig von den Bodenarten die beste obstbauliche Eignung auf. Für den extensiven Anbau von Apfelbäumen auf den Leitbodenformen Sand-Rosterde und Sand-Braunerde sollten nur Standorte mit mehr als 28 Bodenpunkten verwendet werden (Bodenarten Sl 4D, Sl 3D, lS 4D,lS 3D und SL 4D). Das individuelle Verhalten von alten Apfelsorten in der vegetativen und generativen Leistung wurde auf einer starkwachsenden Klonunterlage untersucht. Eine Abhängigkeit der Zuwachsleistung der Bäume von den verwendeten Sorten, der Ertragsbildung und von den Witterungserscheinungen wurde nachgewiesen. / This thesis studied the factors that exercise essential influence on the development of tall fruit trees in extensive cultivation. We were able to prove that climatic factors directly influence the development of the trees. For achieving this we defined new climatic indicators and established relationships with the growth of the trees by means of dendro-chronological investigations. Further, we were able to prove that complex interactions exist between the climatic influences, soil water conditions and the resistance of the trees against cold in winter. For the tall fruit trees we defined negative and positive indicator years within a period of more than 120 years depending upon the climate and the location. The relationships between the vegetative performance of the trees and the soil/ and soil water conditions were studied in apple trees aged 50, 100 and 200 years and we were able to prove correlations with the evaluation models of the Reichsbodenschätzung (assessment of soil types in the German Reich) and the medium scale agricultural location mapping of the GDR (East Germany) (dominant soil forms). The growth intensity of the trees differed according to their location. The highest growth rates were reached in locations which were influenced by groundwater and/or perched water. At the locations that were influenced by water the type of soil had only minor influence within the same kind of fruit trees, however, we discovered specific differences between the individual kinds of fruit. On locations with clayey soil covered by sand or loam the apple trees reached higher growth rates than at locations where the top soil was clay. Pear trees reached higher growth rates on clayey soils than on clayey soils covered by sand or loam. Growth depressions occurred in pear trees only at locations with heavy clayey soil. Locations that were far from groundwater or perched water made the influence of the dominating soil forms and soil types very clear. From among the dominating soil forms which we investigated the pale soils with deep loam showed to be the most suitable for growing fruit trees irrespective of the kind of fruit. For extensive cultivation of apple trees on the dominating soil forms of sandy rusty soil and sandy brown soils should be used only locations with more than 28 points for soil quality (soil types S1 4D, S1 3D, IS 4D, IS 3D and SL 4D). We studied the individual behaviour of ancient apple species with respect to the vegetative and generative performance on a strongly growing clone stock. We were able to prove that the growth performance of the trees depends upon the chosen species, the yield formation and weather conditions.

O uso telhados verdes oferece benefícios como: moderação dos valores da temperatura no interior de edificações e contenção temporária da água de chuva, limpeza de poluentes atmosféricos, além de favorecer aspectos ecológicos. Poucos estudos científicos foram realizados no sentido de adaptar as técnicas contemporâneas e a indicação de espécies apropriadas ao sistema de telhado verde extensivo, originadas de regiões de clima temperado para as condições dos climas tropicais. O objetivo desta pesquisa foi identificar espécies com potencial de uso em telhado verde em sistema extensivo, quantificando a reação das plantas à variação de diferentes profundidades de substrato, em situações limitadas de manutenção, no aspecto de irrigação e nutrição do solo. Procurou-se também registrar o comportamento térmico do solo, a fim de verificar a influência da vegetação no aquecimento da parte inferior do solo em relação a distintas profundidades de substrato. Os vegetais foram plantados em setembro de 2009 aplicados em 27 plataformas de teste. Foram cultivadas três espécies de plantas das famílias Fabaceae (Arachis repens Handro), Poaceae (Paspalum notatum Flügge) e Ruscacea (Ophiopogon japonicus (L.F. Ker Gawl)), sob três tratamentos de profundidades de substrato, 0.05, 0.075 e 0.10 m. Quantificou-se mensalmente a porcentagem de cobertura vegetal, crescimento vertical e de sobrevivência, com encerramento ao final de um ciclo anual. O comportamento térmico dos solos nos diferentes tratamentos foi registrado automaticamente por meio de sensores. Os resultados indicaram a espécie Ophiopogon japonicus, em solos de 0.10 m, como a que apresentou o melhor desempenho entre as três examinadas, seguida por Paspalum notatum. Todas as espécies cultivadas em solos de 0.10 m apresentaram resultados satisfatórios quanto a cobertura do solo, crescimento vertical e sobrevivência, em relação ao cultivo em profundidades menores de substrato. O cultivo em menor profundidade de solo (0.05 m) revelou baixo valor de sobrevivência para todas as espécies durante o período de poucas chuvas. O crescimento vertical foi satisfatório para todas as espécies analisadas, dispensando manutenção com poda regular. Os resultados de comportamento térmico indicaram melhor desempenho de solos à profundidade de 0.10 m, independente do tipo de planta cultivado. Concluiu-se que solos de menor espessura são mais dependentes de cobertura vegetal para minimizar seu aquecimento e que os solos de maior espessura o fazem com menor dependência da vegetação. O melhor desempenho térmico foi observado em solos de 0.10 m, em relação às profundidades menores, embora não variasse seu comportamento térmico significativamente com o cultivo das três diferentes espécies de plantas, referente aos valores de cobertura atingidos neste experimento. / The uses of green roofs provide benefits such as moderation of the temperature inside buildings, temporary containment of rainwater, cleaning of air pollutants, in addition to promoting ecological aspects. Few scientific studies have been conducted to adapt contemporary techniques and indication of appropriate species for extensive green roof system, originated from temperate regions to the conditions of tropical climates. The objective of this research was to identify species with potential for use in green roof in the extensive system, quantifying the response of plants to variation of different depths of substrate, in limited situations of maintenance in respect of irrigation and soil nutrition. Was searched register the thermal behavior of soil in order to determine the influence of vegetation on the warming of the lower soil depths for different substrates. The plants were planted in september 2009, applied in 27 platforms. There were three species of cultivated plants of the families Fabaceae (Arachis repens Handro), Poaceae (Paspalum notatum Flügge) and Ruscacea (Ophiopogon japonicus (L.F.) Ker Gawl) under three treatments of substrate depths, 0.05, 0.075 and 0.10 m. Was quantified the percentage of monthly vegetation cover, vertical growth and survival, with closing at the end of an annual cycle. The thermal behavior of soils under different treatments was recorded using sensors. The results indicated that Ophiopogon japonicus in 0.10 m soils, showed the best performance among the three examined. All species grown in 0.10 m of soils had been satisfactory results of soil cover, vertical growth and survival in relation to culture in shallower substrate. The species Arachis repens showed the highest sensitivity to the depth and water stress during the autumn and winter, requiring more necessity of maintenance. Cultivation in shallower soil (0.05 m) showed low survival value for all species during the short rains. The vertical growth was satisfactory for all species analyzed, of which the greatest height reached was Ophiopogon japonicus without requiring regular maintenance pruning. The results indicated better performance thermal behavior of soil to a depth of 0.10 m, regardless of the type of plant grown. It was concluded that soils of lesser thickness are dependent on vegetation cover to minimize your heating, and the soils with more thickness are less dependence on the vegetation. The best thermal performance was observed in soils of 0.10 m compared to shallower depths, but did not vary significantly its thermal behavior with the cultivation of three different species of plants, referring to amounts of coverage achieved in this experiment.

Os raios cósmicos de ultra-alta energia (UHECR) são partículas que chegam no topo da atmosfera terrestre com energia acima de 10^{18} eV. Sua composição é uma das chaves para elucidar sua origem que ainda é desconhecida. Devido ao seu baixo fluxo, os UHECR são detectados indiretamente através dos chuveiros atmosféricos extensos (EAS). Em nossa pesquisa desenvolvemos um método de discriminação da composição dos UHECR combinando dois parâmetros característicos destes chuveiros. Um deles é a profundidade na qual o chuveiro atinge seu máximo, tendo o maior número de partículas (X_{max}), e o outro, a densidade numérica de múons a 1000 m do centro do chuveiro (ho_{1000}). Temos como objetivo discriminar chuveiros iniciados por fótons daqueles iniciados por núcleos ou núcleons dado que mesmo uma pequena fração de fótons pode elucidar vários aspectos fundamentais dos UHECR. Nosso método é baseado em simulações de chuveiros, no qual, incluímos os efeitos de detecção e reconstrução, dados pelas técnicas de fluorescência e de superfície. Mostramos que nosso método de discriminação é robusto, mesmo incluindo as incertezas de reconstrução dos múons nos chuveiros que aqui estimamos para as próximas gerações de detectores de superfície. A incerteza do X_{max} será aquela usual da reconstrução pela técnica de fluorescência. Portanto, nossa análise tem um caráter preditivo para a separação da composição dos UHECR com estes parâmetros. Desta forma, nosso método pode ser aplicado aos dados dos observatórios de UHECR que utilizarem a próxima geração de detectores de superfície para reconstrução dos múons dos EAS, tais como as Colaborações Pierre Auger e Telescope Array. / Ultrahigh energy cosmic rays (UHECR) are particles which reach the Earth\'s atmosphere with energy above 10^ eV. Their composition is one of the keys to elucidate their origin which is still unknown. Due their low flux, the UHECR are detected indirectly by Extensive Air Showers (EAS). In this thesis, we develop a method to investigate their composition by simultaneously analyzing two EAS parameters, the depth at which the shower reaches its maximum size, where the number of particles reaches its maximum (X_), and the muon number at 1000 m from the shower core (ho_). We aim at discriminating EAS initiated by photons from those initiated by nucleus and nucleons. Even a small photonic fraction might reveal important fundamental UHECR questions. Our method is based on EAS simulations which includes, the detection and reconstruction by fluorescence and surface detectors. We show that our methodological approach is robust even when muons reconstruction uncertainties are considered. We derive the necessary uncertainty of the next generation of surface detectors that look for detect muons in EAS. As a result, our analysis is predictive in separating photon showers from nucleus and nucleons. Thus, our method can be used as an data analysis tool for UHECR experiments, such as the Pierre Auger Observatory and Telescope Array.

L’objectif principal de la thèse était de caractériser les impacts de différents types de gestion pastorale (bovins, équins, caprins) sur les communautés végétales de « nouveaux écosystèmes » fortement anthropisés que sont les digues et remblais de la réserve de Donzère-Mondragon dans la basse vallée du Rhône. Différents outils ont été utilisés (relevés de végétation, analyses de sols, analyses minérales des herbages, télédétection, SIG, etc.) à des échelles spatiales différentes afin de dégager les interrelations entre les différents niveaux d’organisation et fonctionnalités de la végétation. En effet, l’émergence des « nouveaux écosystèmes » oblige les gestionnaires à reconsidérer les principes initiaux de la gestion conservatoire. Dans notre étude, il a pu être démontré que les systèmes de pâturage faisant appel à des troupeaux d’herbivores dont l’organisation est adaptée pour maintenir l’ouverture des milieux, augmentent la richesse spécifique, la diversité et l’hétérogénéité de la végétation à court terme (3-5 années) par rapport à l’absence de gestion ou aux interventions mécaniques. Les analyses montrent également que les espèces annuelles qui apparaissent sont appétentes et contribuent à augmenter la valeur fourragère de certains faciès du site pâturé par les chevaux. Ces herbivores ont également un impact sur la banque de graines permanente du sol en augmentant son hétérogénéité et la densité de graines viables sous les faciès les plus pâturés. Le pâturage des vaches et des chevaux confirme une corrélation entre l’indice de végétation (NDVI) obtenu après l’analyse de photographies aériennes, la biomasse et la richesse en espèces végétales. Les estimations d’indices de consommation de la ronce sous SIG ont permis d’apprécier l’efficacité de l’action des chèvres. Ces différents résultats, pour les modalités testées, correspondent bien à ceux déjà obtenus lors d’applications de systèmes pastoraux en milieux naturels. Des expérimentations devraient également être menées à l’avenir via des systèmes de pâturage mixtes notamment bovin-caprin et équin-caprin pour accroître l’effet de la restauration aux dépens de la colonisation d’arbustes compétitifs dont la ronce. La gestion pastorale appliquée devrait néanmoins être pensée sur le moyen terme, si possible via des contrats pluriannuels, favorisant la durabilité de cette méthode de gestion et de ses effets dans le temps. / The main objective of the thesis was to characterize the impacts of different types of pastoral management (cattle, horses, goats) on "new ecosystems" plant communities. Our experimentations were conducted in highly anthropized dykes and embankments of the Donzère-Mondragon reserve in the lower Rhone valley. Various tools were used (i.e. vegetation surveys, soil analyzes, grassland mineral analyzes, remote sensing, GIS, etc.), and at different spatial scales in order to identify the interrelationships between the different levels of vegetation organization and functions. Indeed, the emergence of "new ecosystems" requires managers to reconsider the initial principles of conservation management. Our study showed that, in the short term (3-5 years), grazing systems using herds of herbivores, whose organization is adapted to maintain open habitats, increase species richness, diversity and heterogeneity of plant communities compared to lack of management or mechanical interventions. Moreover, the annual species that appear are appetizing and contribute to increase the forage value of the site grazed by horses. These herbivores also have an impact on the permanent seed bank by increasing both its heterogeneity and the density of viable seeds under the most grazed patches. Grazing of cattle and horses confirm a correlation between the vegetation index (NDVI), biomass and plant species richness. Finally, we evaluated the efficacy of goats’ action on bramble via consumption indices calculated using GIS. Our different results are in the line with those already obtained in natural environments. Future experiments should test the effects of mixed grazing systems, particularly cattle, goats and horses, on the colonization dynamic of competitive shrubs such as brambles. Applied pastoral management should be considered in the medium term, via multi-year contracts to promote the sustainability of this management method and its effects over time.

Os raios cósmicos de ultra-alta energia (UHECR) são partículas que chegam no topo da atmosfera terrestre com energia acima de 10^{18} eV. Sua composição é uma das chaves para elucidar sua origem que ainda é desconhecida. Devido ao seu baixo fluxo, os UHECR são detectados indiretamente através dos chuveiros atmosféricos extensos (EAS). Em nossa pesquisa desenvolvemos um método de discriminação da composição dos UHECR combinando dois parâmetros característicos destes chuveiros. Um deles é a profundidade na qual o chuveiro atinge seu máximo, tendo o maior número de partículas (X_{max}), e o outro, a densidade numérica de múons a 1000 m do centro do chuveiro (ho_{1000}). Temos como objetivo discriminar chuveiros iniciados por fótons daqueles iniciados por núcleos ou núcleons dado que mesmo uma pequena fração de fótons pode elucidar vários aspectos fundamentais dos UHECR. Nosso método é baseado em simulações de chuveiros, no qual, incluímos os efeitos de detecção e reconstrução, dados pelas técnicas de fluorescência e de superfície. Mostramos que nosso método de discriminação é robusto, mesmo incluindo as incertezas de reconstrução dos múons nos chuveiros que aqui estimamos para as próximas gerações de detectores de superfície. A incerteza do X_{max} será aquela usual da reconstrução pela técnica de fluorescência. Portanto, nossa análise tem um caráter preditivo para a separação da composição dos UHECR com estes parâmetros. Desta forma, nosso método pode ser aplicado aos dados dos observatórios de UHECR que utilizarem a próxima geração de detectores de superfície para reconstrução dos múons dos EAS, tais como as Colaborações Pierre Auger e Telescope Array. / Ultrahigh energy cosmic rays (UHECR) are particles which reach the Earth\'s atmosphere with energy above 10^ eV. Their composition is one of the keys to elucidate their origin which is still unknown. Due their low flux, the UHECR are detected indirectly by Extensive Air Showers (EAS). In this thesis, we develop a method to investigate their composition by simultaneously analyzing two EAS parameters, the depth at which the shower reaches its maximum size, where the number of particles reaches its maximum (X_), and the muon number at 1000 m from the shower core (ho_). We aim at discriminating EAS initiated by photons from those initiated by nucleus and nucleons. Even a small photonic fraction might reveal important fundamental UHECR questions. Our method is based on EAS simulations which includes, the detection and reconstruction by fluorescence and surface detectors. We show that our methodological approach is robust even when muons reconstruction uncertainties are considered. We derive the necessary uncertainty of the next generation of surface detectors that look for detect muons in EAS. As a result, our analysis is predictive in separating photon showers from nucleus and nucleons. Thus, our method can be used as an data analysis tool for UHECR experiments, such as the Pierre Auger Observatory and Telescope Array.

This graduate report is a description of my artistic development through the graduate program at the University of Texas at Austin. It records my development and growth as an artist in relationship to the concepts, materials, and processes I have been investigating and exploring in the past three years. The graduate report focuses on three important concerns to which I’ve been dedicated. First, materials are imperative to my work. I physically collect and use my father’s ordinary objects and transform them with raw materials, such as clay, flour, honey, chocolate, beeswax, and petroleum jelly. The decision of choosing raw materials is based on my personal and cultural experiences. I am particularly interested in exploiting raw materials because I believe these raw materials can trigger a particular memory, place, or relationship that I want to preserve and remember. Second, my process of making involves ritualistic aspects with repetitive acts. I believe that everyday practices are a way of reconstructing relationships and remembering home. I am interested in embracing emotional attributes that may be simple activities: spraying a piece daily to keep it wet or sewing a personal object until it is impossible to sew. Finally, through the relationship among the objects, repeated actions, and an anticipation that evokes magical power and charged energy, I methodically transform objects. I do this to celebrate emotions and to preserve not only these personal objects but also my memories of home. / text

No description available.

This thesis deals with the integration of firms into export markets when trade barriers decrease. It consists in three chapters.The first chapter focuses on how cross-industry differences in factor intensities and within-industry differences in firm productivity shape the response of the extensive (the decision to export) and the intensive (the exported volumes) margin of export. The context of the analysis is the entry of Turkey into the European Customs Union in 1996. Results suggest that the extensive margin reacted more in labor-intensive sectors.In the second chapter we use a gravity approach to analyze how the decrease in tariffs promoted during the '90s by the Uruguay Round multilateral agreement affected trade margins for French firms. We find that the tariffs significantly affect trade only through the extensive margin. The third chapter describes the dynamic of firms' export to different countries and uncovers eleven new stylized facts on firm-level trade. / Esta tesis trata de la integración de las impresas en los mercados internacionales cuando las barreras al comercio bajan. El primer capitulo analiza como las diferencias de la intensidad de los factores entre las industrias y de la productividad de las impresas en cada industria determinan la respuesta del margen extenso (la decisión de exportar) y intensivo (los volúmenes exportados) de cada impresa. El contexto de este análisis es la entrada de la Turquía en la Unión Aduanera Europea en el 1996. Los resultados indican que el margen extenso reacciona más en los sectores más intensivos en mano de obra.En el segundo capitulo utilizamos una ecuación gravitacional para analizar como el decrecimiento de las tarifas obtenida en los '90s gracias al "Uruguay Round" ha afectado los márgenes del comercio de las impresas Francesas. Descubrimos que las tarifas afectan de una manera significativa solo el margen extenso.El tercero capitulo describe la dinámica del exporte de las impresas en distintos Piases y revela once nuevos hechos estilizados sobre el comercio de las empresas.

Reading is considered to be a vital skill for academic success, yet it is seldom taught to or practised with students. Students begin to `read to learn' during primary and secondary schooling. However, at tertiary level the academic demands are much greater than before and involve more extensive reading of conceptually more complex texts. This study investigates the implementation of an intensive reading programme for post-matric English Second Language Science students, based on the assumption that reading improves reading. In addition, this study investigates the effect that reading ability has on academic performance in Science, which relies inter alia, on the ability to read, comprehend and interpret word problems. An intervention group and a control group were used to ascertain the effects of an intensive reading programme and the findings suggest that any reading (intensive or extensive) improves reading and language skills. This in turn impacts on academic performance in Science, if students have an ability in Science to begin with. / Linguistics and Modern Languages / MA - SP APPLIED LINGUISTICS