The diploma thesis deals with innovations selected insurance products and their alternatives. The theoretical part describes the insurance market and development of insurance in the Czech Republic, defines important terms as a coincidence, insured event, insurance products, risk and legal norms in the insurance. In the practical part is an analysis of the selected insurance company and its competitors. On the basis of obtained information are selected insurance products compared. In the proposal part are recommended changes for existing insurance products of the selected insurance company in terms of their content and coverage of risk in the unexpected event. The partial aim is the proposal an alternative insurance product for selected insurance company, which could arise in the future in its range of insurance products.

The thesis is divided into theoretical and practical parts. Definitions and explanations of terms related to real estate issues and their valuation are presented in the theoretical part. They are presented here all the information and the laws, regulations and standards required for classification of the property and its subsequent determination of value. In the practical part of the comparison of the selected insurance companies operating on the Czech market. At the chosen property valuation is performed and the resulting values are compared with the practices of the insurance. In conclusion, given the practical outcomes and recommendations for the process of determining the insured value of the property in terms of the insurance contract.

The aim of the Thesis is to establish the height of the insurance claim for the damage caused by the fire of the family house in Ivančice. The Thesis is divided into two separate sections, the theoretical one and the practical one. The theoretical part deals with the Czech insurance market issues such as property evaluation and evaluation of construction works. In the practical part there are established two different insurance value of the property. First one relates to the condition of the property shortly after completion and the second one should reflect the state of the property shortly before the damage caused by the fire. This part of the Thesis is followed by the description of the insurance claim with the list of damage caused by the fire supplemented with calculation of cost of the adequate reconstruction. The final part of the document contains comparation of the insurance value established shortly before the damage and the insurance value of the property evaluatated after the reconstruction.

本文將負面醫療結果(醫療傷害)統稱為醫療事故(medical incident)，而醫療事故中又分為醫療過失(medical negligence)、醫療不幸（medical mishap，又名醫療災禍）及醫療意外(medical accident)三種情況。造成醫療傷害可能是因為醫療的過失責任，也可能是無醫療過失責任，本文特意將無醫療過失責任再細分為無過失責任、非過失責任與無法律責任（自然死亡或自然病程）三種，並將「無過失責任」no fault liability一詞泛以「無關過失責任」稱之；醫療行為中可預知的合併症與副作用的「醫療不幸」及不可預知、不可抗力的「醫療意外」屬非過失責任範疇，而不可避免性的自然死亡及自然病程，則屬無法律責任的範疇。 責任負擔可分為賠償、補償、救濟三種。賠償者，以不法之侵權行為，致使他人受損害時，因而填補其所受之損害，謂之賠償，英文為indemnity。補償者，指根據該法所指定的人員敲定的額度提供的金錢補助，而不是指針對不法行為或違反契約依法起訴所獲得的補償性賠償金，英文為compensation。救濟者，特別指由國家向貧困者提供的財政幫助，英文為relief。 過失責任的歸責原因是醫療疏失，所以是以損害填補原則及不當得利禁止原則，以填補受害者所受損害及所失利益；因此，過失責任要負的是損害「賠償責任」。非過失責任的歸責原因包括醫療不幸（即副作用、合併症）與醫療意外兩種，因為醫師客觀上已盡注意義務，不論有無結果預知義務或結果迴避義務，醫師已盡力防阻，仍不免發生醫療傷害，故並無醫療疏失可言，應由國家社會對受害者予以救濟；因此，非過失責任理應由福利國家的救濟制度來負責。無關過失責任no fault liability的歸責原因是危險責任，針對所有醫療事故，不論對錯無關過失下，只要有了醫療傷害，加害人就予以被害人限額補償的基本保障。因為醫師身為危險責任主體，依報償責任理論（利之所存，險之所擔）、危險控制理論及危險分擔理論下必須承擔危險責任，因以，無關過失責任應負醫療事故補償責任。 賠償、補償、救濟三種責任負擔都可以分別採用基金模式或保險模式來解決；本文則認為，醫療過失責任宜採取醫師專業責任保險，予受害人損害賠償。醫療無關過失責任宜採取醫事人員強制責任保險，輔以醫療事故特別補償基金，予受害人基本保障補償。醫療非過失責任宜採取醫療風險救濟基金，予受害人風險救濟，急難救助。 故本文結論提出事故補償、風險救濟、損害賠償三階層的保險與基金制度架構，以解決醫療糾紛民事責任問題即；第一層事故補償—針對醫療事故，以醫事人員強制責任保險無關過失，限額補償；第二層風險救濟—針對醫療意外，整合醫療風險救濟基金定額救濟；第三層損害賠償—針對過失責任，以醫師責任保險損害填補。 / In this paper, we study negative outcomes associated with the delivery health care, which are collectively referred to as “medical incident”. This is further divided into “medical negligence”, “medical mishap” (also known as “medical disaster”), and “medical accidents”. Medical injuries may be in consequence of medical negligence or otherwise, that is they may be with fault or without fault. In this paper we further medical injuries without fault into three categories: (1) liability regardless of fault, (2) liability without fault, and (3) no legal liability. Notably, we refer to “no-fault liability” as “liability regardless of fault” to better distinguish its legal implications with respect to other kinds of medical injuries without fault. Predictable complications and side effects of medical treatments are considered “medical mishap”; unavoidable natural death or nature course of disease have “no legal liability”. The burden of duty can be divided into three categories: indemnity, compensation, and relief. Indemnity is secondary to the violation of rights leading to injury and damages. Compensation is set by appointed experts and given in direct consequence of the occurrence of the injury, and is independently of the determination of legality and contract fulfillment. Relief specifically refers to financial assistance given by government entities to those in need. At-fault liability follows medical negligence, and as such indemnity is given for reparation of damages and the prohibition of gains from the provision of negligent medical care. Causes of liability with no fault include medical mishaps and medical accidents. In these cases, the physician has fulfilled duties as medical professionals and in so doing have done their best to prevent medical incidents. Nevertheless due to circumstances beyond control, medical injuries occur. Because there is no negligence on the part of the physician, these losses are ideally dealt with by the governmental agencies. Liability regardless of fault attributes liability based on risk alone. Under this system, for all medical incidents, whether or not they are the consequence of negligence, the victim receives relief at a pre-determined amount. This relief serves as the basic protection of patients. Since the physician as the chief medical care provider is also at the center of medical risk, by principles of risk management, liability regardless of fault should in addition be organized as medical incidents compensation. The three forms of duty burden–indemnity, compensation, and relief–can be organized either as foundations or as insurances. We argue that duty burden for medical negligence is best managed by professional liability insurance to provide compensation to the victims. Medical liability regardless of fault is best managed by compulsory medical provider liability insurance with additional medical incidence compensation fund to provide at least a basic level of compensation to the victims. Medical liability without fault is best managed by medical risk relief fund for assistance for the victims. In conclusion, in this paper we analyze various forms of liability and management of medical risks, and propose the use of professional liability insurance for medical injuries with fault, compulsory liability insurance for liability without fault, and relief fund for liability regardless of fault, in the setting of medical incidence. This provides a comprehensive, three-layered solution to the emerging problem of proliferation of medical incident cases in the courts. The first layer is incidence compensation, directed at all medical incidents, via compulsory medical personnel liability insurance regardless of fault. The second layer is risk relief, directed at medical mishaps and medical accidents, via risk relief funds. The third layer is damage indemnity, directed at at-fault liability, via physician professional liability insurance, to fulfill the victims’ damages.

I uppsatsen presenteras en utförlig granskning av W&I-försäkring, mer känd under samlingsnamnet M&A-försäkring, och analys av försäkringens relation till ansvarsbegränsningar i det underliggande förvärvsavtalet. Syftet med försäkringen är att erbjuda ett fördelaktigt försäkringsalternativ till traditionella metoder för att ställa säkerhet för lämnande garantier i ett förvärvsavtal. Försäkringslösningen ger en säljare möjlighet att undvika de ekonomiska inlåsningseffekter som garantiavsättningar ger upphov till, samtidigt som den ger köparen trygghet genom att säljaren kan ge garantier som denne annars inte hade varit villig att ge. Den rådande trenden visar på att användning av M&A-försäkring i företagstransaktioner stadigt ökar, framförallt i företagstransaktioner med betydande värde. M&A-försäkringen är i företagsförsäkringssammanhang relativt ny, vilket innebär att det finns obesvarade frågor som behöver redas ut, framförallt hur ansvarsbegränsningar som lämnas av säljaren i förvärvsavtalet påverkar försäkringsavtalet, om det är säljaren som tecknar försäkringen. För att kunna förstå uppsatsens argumenterande delar är det viktigt att först redogöra för de delar av transaktionen och transaktionsprocessen som försäkringsavtalet bygger på för att sedan utifrån försäkringsvillkor presentera en helhetsbild av försäkringslösningen. Med utgångspunkt i M&A-försäkringens villkorsutformning och strukturering kan försäkringen dissekeras för att ta fram vilka principiella försäkringsrättsliga byggstenar och grundsatser som försäkringen är byggd på. Det leder till slut fram till diskussionen om vad som i försäkringens sammanhang förstås som skada, och relationen till ansvarsbegränsningar i förvärvsavtalet utifrån vad som i försäkringens olika utföranden utgör det försäkrade intresset.

En assurance de dommages, l’article 2474 C.c.Q. prévoit la possibilité pour l’assureur d’être légalement subrogé dans les droits de l’assuré contre l’auteur du préjudice, à concurrence des indemnités qu’il a payées. L’assureur ne pourra jamais être subrogé contre les personnes faisant partie de la maison de l’assuré. Dans un premier temps, le présent mémoire fait un survol historique du droit à la subrogation de l’assureur en vertu du Code civil. Depuis la codification de 1865, les principes relatifs à la subrogation de l’assureur ne sont pas demeurés statiques. Ils firent l’objet de plusieurs modifications législatives et de nombreuses controverses et développements jurisprudentiels. Dans un deuxième temps, un portrait global de l’état actuel du droit est dressé en ce qui concerne l’article 2474 C.c.Q., tant sur le plan des composantes du droit à la subrogation que de ses aspects procéduraux. / In damage insurance, article 2474 C.c.Q. provides the possibility for the insurer to be legally subrogated to the rights of the insured against the person responsible for the loss, up to the amount of indemnity paid. The insurer may never be subrogated against persons who are members of the household of the insured. Firstly, the present Master’s thesis makes a historical overview of the right of subrogation of the insurer under the Civil Code. Since the codification of 1865, the principles governing the insurer’s subrogation have not remained static. They were subject of many legislative amendments and numerous controversies and case law developments. Secondly, a global portrait of the current state of law is made in relation to article 2474 C.c.Q., with regard to the components of the subrogation and its procedural aspects.

Le lien de causalité est une condition centrale du droit de la responsabilité administrative. Entre la faute et le préjudice, l’examen du lien de causalité est un impératif de justice et une inévitable exigence intellectuelle. Il permet de donner un ordre à la fois rationnel et juste aux faits. Réputé impénétrable, suspect d’arbitraire, acculé à un prétendu déclin par le développement de la logique assurantielle, le lien de causalité n’a pas fait l’objet d’une étude d’ensemble en droit public. L’analyse de la notion de lien de causalité permet pourtant de tromper cette image. Elle révèle, d’abord, qu’il faut distinguer le problème -métaphysique- de la causalité, de la question -pragmatique- de l’explication causale. La nature des problèmes posés par ces deux questions est différente ; celle qui se pose au juge est modeste : donner une explication rationnelle aux faits, sans quête de la vérité. Elle permet, ensuite, d’observer que le lien de causalité, s’il ne relève pas d’un constat objectif des faits, n’est toutefois pas empreint d’une subjectivité singulière par rapport à d’autres notions indéterminées en droit. L’étude de la pratique du lien de causalité en atteste. Le juge administratif a une approche ordonnée du lien de causalité fondée sur un équilibre entre attachement à la matérialité des faits et finalité de l’explication causale. Dans l’identification d’une cause, la hiérarchisation d’une pluralité de causes ou la circonscription du dommage, la jurisprudence administrative se caractérise par cette liberté, fidèle à l’arrêt Blanco, dans la détermination d’une politique jurisprudentielle, que le lien de causalité permet, parfois, mais suit seulement, le plus souvent. / Causal relationship is a central term in the law of administrative responsibility. Between fault and prejudice, the examination of causal relationship is an essential element of justice and constitutes an unavoidable intellectual requirement. It allows the judge to give an order which is both rational and just to facts. Reputed to be impenetrable, suspected of arbitrariness, driven into alleged decline by the development of the logic of insurance, causal relationship has never formed the object of a full-fledged study in public law. The analysis of the notion of causal relationship allows us to correct the image above. It first reveals that we have to distinguish the metaphysical problem of causality from the pragmatic question of causal explanation. The nature of the problem posed by these two questions is different. The question that is put to the judge is modest : give a rational explanation to facts without looking for the truth. It secondly allows to observe that the causal relationship, if it does not come close to being an objective observation of facts, does not bear the imprint of a specific subjectivity with regard to other indeterminate notions in law. The study of the practice of causal relationship bears witness to this. The administrative judge has an ordered approach of the causal relationship founded on a balance between attachment to the materiality of facts and the finality of causal explanation. In the identification of a cause, in the prioritization of multiple causes or in fixing damages, administrative jurisprudence is characterized by this freedom, which is in conformity with the Blanco ruling, in the determination of a jurisprudential policy that causal relationship sometimes renders possible, but which it only follows most often.

A questão habitacional vem ocupando, recentemente, lugar de destaque entre as políticas públicas prioritárias no país, configurando um movimento de revitalização - apoiado por um marco regulatório aprimorado e um ambiente macroeconômico favorável, além do restabelecimento da Política Nacional de Habitação (PNH) - que exibe vertiginoso crescimento do crédito habitacional na última década. O Sistema Brasileiro de Poupança e Empréstimo (SBPE) e o Fundo de Garantia por Tempo de Serviço (FGTS), fontes arregimentadas para serem os pilares do Sistema Financeiro da Habitação (SFH), criado em 1964, ainda sustentam preponderantemente o crédito habitacional no Brasil e constituem, conjuntamente, a espinha dorsal de funding do atual Sistema Nacional de Habitação (SNH). Esta tese analisa essas duas fontes de captação de recursos a partir do pressuposto de que ambas devem ser dedicadas, de modo estratégico, ao financiamento habitacional. As justificativas residem, de um lado, na observação do potencial de captação dessas fontes - que acumulam R$ 685 bilhões (set./2012) - a taxas abaixo do \"livre mercado\" e, de outro, no reconhecimento de que há um segmento de famílias que possui condição de acessar crédito habitacional, desde que em condições especiais em relação às oferecidas pelo \"livre mercado\". A universalização do acesso à moradia digna, meta máxima estabelecida pela nova PNH, requer o atendimento a essas famílias. Dessa forma, este trabalho parte da hipótese de que o SFH, apesar de regulamentado, constituindo um circuito direcionado de crédito habitacional, não tem o seu potencial estratégico utilizado plenamente para realizar esse atendimento. Ou seja, o SFH não está aderente à atual Política. As análises confirmam a hipótese postulada: apesar de o SFH ser mantido sob regulamentação específica, preservando a vinculação de suas fontes ao crédito habitacional, tanto o SBPE quanto o FGTS vêm apresentando desempenho abaixo do seu potencial, comprometendo a necessária expansão downmarket. Se reformulada a regulação dessas fontes, essa expansão ganhará um ritmo muito mais adequado ao objetivo da universalização. Este trabalho abarcou, ainda, a revisão do desenho proposto para o SNH e considerações sobre limitações do financiamento e suas interfaces com o território. / The housing issue has recently been occupying center stage in Brazil\'s social policies, supported by the revamp of the country\'s Housing Finance System (SFH), favored by a refined regulatory framework, by income growth and a stable macroeconomic environment. The Brazilian Savings and Loan System (SBPE) and the Severance Indemnity Guarantee Fund (FGTS) instituted to be the pillars of the SFH, created in 1964, predominantly support, even today, the housing credit in Brazil and together constitute the backbone of funding for the new National Housing Policy (PNH), established in 2004. This paper attempts to analyze both the SBPE and the FGTS based on the assumption that they should be strategically targeted to expand housing finance downmarket. This depository-based system has accumulated assets of around BRL 685 billion (Sept/2012) and can offer below market interest rates, while a significant portion of families can only access housing finance in subsidized conditions. The main hypothesis that guides this analysis is that notwithstanding current regulations which still make the SFH an earmarked finance market, its funding is not being efficiently used to extend housing finance to those families. Thus, the SFH lacks better alignment with the present national housing policy and its main target of promoting universal access to \"decent homes\". The analyses undertaken confirm the postulated hypothesis: although the SFH has been kept under specific regulation, thus preserving its links to housing credit, both the SBPE and the FGTS have been underperforming in expanding mortgage finance to lower income groups. This paper also includes a critical overview of the design of the National Housing System and reflects on the limits of Brazil\'s finance system in reaching downmarket.

A l’heure où le droit du dommage corporel tente de se démarquer de pars les règles qui lui sont propres, la réparation intégrale des dommages corporels ne semble être véritablement obtenue par la victime que dans le cadre de la responsabilité civile. Le préjudice professionnel a gagné en autonomie depuis l’élaboration de la nomenclature Dintilhac distinguant les pertes de gains professionnels du déficit fonctionnel et conceptualisant un nouveau poste de préjudice professionnel « l’incidence professionnelle ». La réparation intégrale « tout le préjudice ; rien que le préjudice ; le préjudice réel » en devient l’expression. Cependant ce principe est souvent malmené et inéluctablement des inégalités de traitement entre les victimes en découlent. En effet, l’influence excessive du recours des tiers payeurs, sur l’évaluation du préjudice professionnel et l’absence d’outils indispensables à la pérennité de la matière laissent perplexes / At a time when the law of personal injury tries to stand out from the rules that are specific to it, full compensation for bodily injury seems to be truly obtained by the victim only in the context of civil liability. Professional prejudice has become more autonomous since the development of the Dintilhac classification distinguishing professional earnings losses from the functional deficit and conceptualizing a new professional harm position « professional incidence ». Comprehensive reparation « all prejudice; nothing but prejudice; the real harm » becomes its expression. However, this principle is often abused and inevitably inequalities of treatment between victims result. Indeed, the excessive influence of third-party payers' recourse on the assessment of professional harm and the absence of tools essential to the sustainability of the matter are puzzling

I de fall enskilda aktieägare tillfogas skada, genom organledamots handlande, innehar dessa rättigheten att påkalla skadeståndsansvar enligt 29:1 1 st. 2 men. ABL. I den svenska rättstillämpningen ter sig dock tillämpningen av paragrafen, i samband med indirekta skador, problematisk. Problematiken hänför sig till vilka regler, vars åsidosättande, aktualiserar tillämpningen av paragrafen tillsammans med aktieägares talerätt. Två tolkningar kan i fallet identifieras, vilka framförts inom doktrinen, varvid en begränsad och en mer liberal. Även om den liberala tolkningen är förenad med viss problematik, är denna enligt mitt förmenande den vilken bör tillämpas. En sådan tillämpning skulle således innebära att enskilda aktieägare tillerkänns talerätt vid indirekt skada, då regler vilka ger uttryck för normskyddsläran och bolagsledningens lojalitetsplikt åsidosatts. Rättsutvecklingen har vidare givet upphov till frågan, huruvida en ”indirekt” indirekt skada kan omfattas av paragrafens tillämpningsområde. En sådan skada uppstår särskilt i koncernförhållanden då dotterbolaget tillfogas en direkt skada, vilken därigenom åsamkar aktieägarna i dess moderbolag en ”indirekt” indirekt skada. Skadan faller utanför paragrafens tillämpningsområde, då de skadedrabbade inte utgör aktieägare i dotterbolaget. En lösning enligt mitt förmenande, varigenom paragrafens tillämpning koncernanpassas, är att principen om ansvarsgenombrott i betydelsen genomsyn nyttjas. Principens aktualisering medför att ett moder- och dotterbolag betraktas som en juridisk enhet, om erforderliga rekvisit uppfylls, varigenom de skadedrabbade aktieägarna från ett teoretiskt perspektiv även ses som aktieägare i dotterbolaget. Effekten av principens tillämpning är sålunda att en ”indirekt” indirekt skada faller inom paragrafens tillämpningsområde. / Whenever individual shareholders inflict an injury, due to action taken by a corporate member, they possess the right to impose liability in accordance with 29:1 1 st. 2 men. ABL. The paragraph is though associated with some difficulties when it comes to an indirect injury. The difficulties regard which rules that have to be infringed, in order for the paragraph to be applicable and thereby providing shareholders with the right to sue. Two different interpretations can hereby be identified, whereby one limited and the other one more liberal. Even if the liberal interpretation is associated with some difficulties, I find that this one should be applied. Such an application would mean that an individual shareholder acquire the right to sue, for an indirect injury, when rules protecting a third person and the corporate member’s duty of loyalty have been infringed. Legal progress has also given rise to another question, whether an “indirect” indirect injury falls within the paragraphs application. Such an injury is mostly affiliated with corporate groups where the daughter company causes a direct injury, whereby the shareholders in the mother company causes an “indirect” indirect injury. Since the shareholder here is not an owner of the daughter company, the paragraph could not be applied. A solution to this problem is, according to me, an application of the principle piercing the corporate veil, whereby the paragraphs application extends to corporate groups. The effect of the principles application is that a mother- and daughter company becomes one legal entity, if the prerequisites are fulfilled. The outcome is hereby that a shareholder in the mother company, from a theoretical perspective, also is regarded to be an owner of the daughter company. Wherefore an “indirect” indirect injury hereby falls within the scope of the paragraphs application.