Traffic congestion is a significant cost to society, amounting to somewhere between 1 and 2% of GDP according to an EU-wide survey (CE Delft, 2011). To address this cost, road pricing has long been viewed as the first best solution although issues with public and political acceptance have meant the uptake of such schemes has been low. In the meantime parking policies, a second best alternative to road pricing, have become extensively used by local authorities as a means of managing congestion due to the influence the price and availability of parking can have on a motorist s decision to drive. The effectiveness of such strategies however is limited due to local authorities being unable to control privately owned parking. More specifically, free parking at the workplace is seen as contributing to congestion at peak times by incentivising drivers to commute to work by car. To address this, in the UK the Transport Act 2000 granted powers to local authorities to introduce a Workplace Parking Levy (WPL) whereby employers are required to pay a sum based on the number of parking spaces they provide for their staff with the revenue hypothecated for local transport improvements. The introduction of such powers meant the Government estimated there would be 12 schemes by 2010. To-date however, only Nottingham has introduced a WPL. The aim of this thesis therefore is to investigate the transferability of the WPL to other local authorities which is analysed through the application of the Policy Transfer Framework to the WPL in the UK context. It focuses on the views of key stakeholders with respect to the WPL at both the national and local authority level so as to understand the reasons for the low uptake as well as the design, implementation and operational considerations required to introduce such a scheme. The conclusions of this thesis are that lessons can and have been learnt with respect to introducing a WPL as the findings reveal that Nottingham City Council (NCC) drew on aspects of Policy Transfer to facilitate the introduction of the scheme. Specifically, NCC Councillors developed a vision of what a WPL could deliver and were reassured by experts from abroad whilst a staff transfer exercise allowed officers to learn lessons in terms of how the scheme should be designed, implemented and operated. What s more, lessons from a formal DfT evaluation of the pilot scheme in Nottingham following the delivery of the full WPL package will have a significant influence (either positive or negative) on the number of future schemes. More broadly, the results suggest that the WPL is transferable and the adoption of additional WPL schemes in the future is likely. This is due in no small part to the fact that the Nottingham scheme has so far enjoyed a relatively painless introduction even though it is still too early to evaluate how successful it has been in meeting its objectives. This research has made a significant contribution to knowledge in that it has explored the WPL with key stakeholders to generate a standard for introducing and operating a WPL. It has also provided an application of the Policy Transfer framework to understand the process and development of a new policy as well as the type and where lessons are learnt.

Vehicles searching for on-street parking create environmental and economic externalities through increasing network traffic flow and congestion, heightening pollutant emission levels, creating additional noise, giving rise to time delays for through vehicles, and leading to potential safety hazards caused by vehicles manoeuvring into or out of on-street spaces. Despite extensive negative impacts on individual drivers and on society, parking search is an under-researched area, particularly in more recent years and within the UK. Furthermore, current statistical modelling techniques applied to parking search time have not utilised a more comprehensive analysis in which hierarchically structured data on multiple levels could be addressed. The aim of this thesis, therefore, is to investigate and compare the factors that influence drivers urban on-street parking search time and its policy implications. A mixed methods approach was applied that comprised qualitative interviews conducted with local government authority Council Officers and a quantitative revealed preference on-street parking survey (sample size, 1,002 observations) undertaken in four cities in the East Midlands region of the UK in order to obtain individual driver-level socio-economic and other parking related factors that may influence parking search time. Statistically significant variables for each of the cities were identified by employing separate linear regression models. A multilevel mixed-effects model in which drivers (Level 1) are nested within streets (Level 2) was then applied to the pooled dataset. Significant factors in the multilevel (street level) model were identified as: time of arrival at a parking place (for which every time period after the 07:00-07:59 reference case indicated increased search time); parking habit; parking tariff; the number of parking places previously visited (on the same trip); trip time from origin to parking place; area type; trip purpose; weather; vehicle type; and walking time from a parking place to a destination. Comparison of the factors that influence parking search time revealed important differences in statistically significant variables and coefficient values between the single-level and multilevel regression modelling approaches. Policy recommendations based upon the findings of the parking survey, modelling analysis, and further interviews conducted with local authority Council Officers, focus around time of arrival at a parking place, area type, parking charges and the potential technological advances that, if implemented, could have a considerable effect on parking search times within urban areas. Robust data collection and subsequent monitoring of parking search activity within each city should be undertaken in order to provide an evidence base which would support the introduction of future policy measures to reduce parking search activity.

This thesis seeks to contribute to decision support for policy makers in the transport sector. In order to frame the papers and to relate them to the broad field of “policy analysis”, I have structured the papers around a simple framework with three decision levels: responsibility, policy gap, and policy measure. The thesis contains five papers. “Transaction and transition costs during the deregulation of the Swedish Railway market” is a paper in the transaction cost school. We studied the costs associated with the shift from monopoly to competition in the Swedish railway market, and we found that the change resulted in comparatively small transaction costs, but that transition and misalignment costs seem to be larger.  In “Parking policy under strategic interaction”, I examined the effect of strategic interaction between jurisdictions using an analytical model based on Hotelling’s linear city model. I conclude that the procedure for setting supply in most municipalities has a strong downward effect on municipal parking fees and that resource flow competition implies that the fees are higher than the efficient prices (but that the effect of the supply procedures makes this effect incongruous). In “Validation of aggregate reference forecasts for passenger transport”, we followed up the Swedish national forecasts for passenger transport produced from 1975 to 2009 and tried to explain the deviations. We found that the forecasts during the last decades have overestimated car traffic, and that this is due to input errors. The potential problem of using cross-sectional models for forecasting intertemporal changes seems to have been limited. In “The kilometer tax and Swedish industry - effects on sectors and regions”, we estimated factor demand elasticities in the Swedish manufacturing industry and used these to analyze the effects of a kilometer tax for heavy goods vehicles. We found that the kilometer tax leads to factor substitution in that it decreases transport demand and increases labor demand. The effects on output are less pronounced.   In “The effect of minimum parking requirements on the housing stock”, we used a model of the rental, asset, and construction markets. We quality-assured our assumptions and our results through interviews with market actors. In our example suburb, we found that parking norms reduced the housing stock by 1.2% and increased rents by 2.4%. / <p>QC 20171026</p>

[pt] A dissertação em questão aborda o tema de carsharing, relacionando as políticas públicas para estacionamento de veículos do sistema e as teorias de ocupação e uso do solo. O estudo aborda o histórico do sistema desde a sua aparição na Europa a partir do final da década de 1940 até à presenta data, contextualizando a sua inserção junto à antropologia do consumo e às teorias do planejamento ambiental e urbano. O objetivo do estudo é relacionar as boas práticas para a operação do sistema de carsharing, levando em consideração as diferentes teorias de uso e ocupação do solo e as diferentes políticas de estacionamento adotadas em diversas cidades. O trabalho baseia-se em variados estudos a respeito do tema de carsharing e nas práticas adotadas em municipalidades no Brasil e no exterior. Os dados apresentados neste estudo foram coletados em sites de municipalidades, artigos e publicações relacionadas ao tema. Os dados coletados são apresentados por meio de exemplos e tópicos com a ótica da mobilidade urbana sustentável. As conclusões apontam para as práticas ideais e as alternativas para a inserção do sistema de carsharing a rede de transportes públicos das cidades atuais. / [en] According to the IPCC report (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), 2004, 23 percent of greenhouse gas emissions effects related to energy were originated in the transport sector. More than half of these emissions were generated by the use of light vehicle ride and motorcycles, defined as individual motorized transport. Half of the energy consumed in the transport sector is intended for individual motorized transport. However, it is carrying less than 25 percent of the world s passengers. Despite this low number, traffic accidents are responsible for one million deaths annually and ten million injured people. This number is part of a list of the ten leading causes of death recorded and reported by health agencies around the world, a rate next to malaria and HIV. A survey conducted by the Ministry of Cities in Brazil in conjunction with the National Department (National Traffic Department) in the year of 2005 shows that the costs of traffic accidents in Brazilian roads reached the number of twenty-two billion reais, a figure that represented 12 percent of the Brazilian GDP, taking into account the loss of production associated with the death of individuals or the interruption of its activities, the costs for health care and care with vehicles.

This thesis deals with the public financing of the road transport issue, particularly in the Czech Republic. The quantitative analysis of the revenues from the road transport and capital and maintenance costs on road transport in the Czech Republic in 2001 - 2007 is the fundamental part of this thesis. The vehicle excise tax, fuel tax, road tolls, parking policy revenues and other specific charges belong to the public revenues from the road transport. The output of the thesis is the assessment whether the public revenues from the road transport at least cover the capital and maintenance costs on the road infrastructure and the road transport is therefore a source of the revenues to public sources, or whether, on the contrary, the road transport represents the drain for the public sources and thus also for the tax payers. The evaluation of this situation while including the externalities of road transport is also part of this thesis.

I detta kandidatexamensarbete undersöker jag den demokratiska hållbarheten i kommunpolitiska beslut om sänkta krav på parkering (så kallade ”flexibla parkeringsnormer”). Den tidigare forskningen på ämnet har fokuserat på huruvida den önskade beteendeförändringen kan uppnås, varför användarnas uppfattningar kring beslutet inte studerats. Jag undersöker dessa med en kvantitativ fallstudie, där jag samtidigt diskuterar de politiska konsekvenser som uppfattningarna skulle kunna leda till och om beslutet uppfattas som demokratiskt legitimt. Fallstudien är baserad på en enkätundersökning i två flerbostadshus i Malmö som fått ett parkeringstal på ungefär 0,5 parkeringsplatser per lägenhet som följd av ett beslut om flexibel parkeringsnorm. Resultatet visar att många av de boende upplever det som svårt att få en egen parkeringsplats i bostadshuset och att månadsavgifterna upplevs som dyra. Få av de boende uppger att de känner till det politiska beslutet, och när de får veta om det uppger två tredjedelar att de är negativt inställda till det. Fyra femtedelar uttrycker dock att frågan inte är viktig nog för att få dem att rösta på ett annat parti i lokalpolitiken. En slutsats av detta är att inget omedelbart tryck på partierna för att ändra sin syn på frågan finns. Den andra slutsatsen är att ifall kommuner önskar fortsätta med denna typ av parkeringsnorm på ett hållbart sätt, eller ifall de önskar hitta politiskt stöd för att utöka sänkningen ytterligare, kommer de att behöva hitta sätt att utöka acceptansen hos de som påverkas av beslutet. / In this bachelor’s degree thesis, I explore the democratic sustainability of Swedish municipal policies reducing minimum parking requirements (so called “flexible parking requirements”). Past research into such policies has focused on their effectiveness in achieving behavioural change, while leaving the attitudes of the affected users unexamined. I examine these attitudes using a quantitative case study, while discussing the political consequences they might lead to and whether the users might find the policies democratically legitimate or not. The case study is based on a survey of residents in two blocks of flats in Malmö affected by a flexible parking requirement policy requiring about 0.5 parking spaces per flat.  The results show that many residents experience difficulty in getting a lease for a parking space within their own building and find the monthly fees to be expensive. Few of the residents report being aware of the municipal policy and two thirds state that they dislike its content when told about it. However, four fifths of the residents state that the matter is not important enough to them to affect which political party they would vote for. I conclude first that there is no imminent pressure upon the local political parties to change their stances. Secondly, if the municipalities wish to sustainably continue using such policies or to find political support for increasing the reduction further, they need to find measures to improve the acceptance among the affected users.

Bilen har länge varit en central del av många människors vardag där många städer är uppbyggda efter bilens funktion. Idag vill många kommuner minska bilanvändandet och ersätta bilresor som inte är nödvändiga med andra mer miljövänliga färdmedel såsom kollektiv- och cykeltrafik. Många kommuner vill dessutom förtäta stadens centrum och då ses ofta markparkering i attraktiva lägen som ett problem eftersom det tar upp mycket värdefull yta.Syftet med detta examensarbete är att beskriva hur olika kommuner hanterar parkeringsfrågan för att få en helhetsbild av hur Sverige behandlar frågan. De flesta kommuner arbetar idag med flexibla parkeringstal där byggherren ges möjlighet att utföra så kallade mobilitetsåtgärder, till exempel bilpool, som kan ge en reducering av antalet parkeringar som behöver anläggas vid nyexploatering. Detta system är relativt nytt och eftersom många kommuner numera tänker arbeta efter denna modell framöver fokuserar examensarbetet på detta. Det gällande lagstödet som reglerar parkeringar är från 80-talet och då kan åsikterna ha varit annorlunda angående bilen och parkeringar än vad de är idag. Det finns ingen tydlig vägledning för hur kommunerna skall hantera parkeringsfrågan då lagen är öppet formulerad och det inte finns många vägledande rättsfall vilket gör det svårt för kommunerna att ha en gemensam strategi.Från resultaten av granskningen kan verkan och långsiktigheten för mobilitetsåtgärderna i vissa fall ifrågasättas eftersom det finns osäkerhet kring hur de faktiskt påverkar efterfrågan på parkeringar i framtiden. Det är därför av vikt att arbetet med flexibla parkeringstal kan utvärderas och följas upp. Här kan kommunerna ta hjälp av varandra för att få större möjligheter att utvärdera fler fall där flexibla parkeringstal använts.Lagens krav är uppfyllt så länge kommunerna utgår från att uppfylla behovet av parkeringar på lång sikt. Om ett parkeringstal skall sänkas ska åtgärder som långsiktigt påverkar parkeringsbehovet genomföras till exempel förbättrad kollektivtrafik. Det finns däremot vissa fall där kommuner sätter för låga parkeringstal med syfte att minska bilanvändandet utan att egentligen ha påverkat efterfrågan på parkeringar. / The car has for a long time been a central part of people’s everyday life and many cities are constructed around the car. A lot of the municipalities nowadays want to reduce the use of the car and replace those journeys with other more environmentally friendly options as public transport and bicycles. They also often want to build cities that are denser and in doing that, parking spaces on the ground become a problem in attractive locations because they take up a lot of space.The purpose of this thesis is to describe how different municipalities deal with the parking issue in order to get a picture of how the issue is dealt with in Sweden. Most of the municipalities are now working with flexible parking numbers where the developer or real estate owner is given the opportunity to use mobility measures in order to reduce the amount of parking spaces they have to build. This system is relatively new and whereas most of the municipalities are planning to use this model, this thesis focuses on this matter.The current law that regulate parking derives from the eighties and at that time the general opinion about cars and the matter of parking might have differed from the general view today. There is no distinct guidance for how the municipalities should handle the parking issue since the law is open to interpretations and there are not many court cases that handle the matter.After studying 18 different municipalities it can be concluded that the longevity of the mobility measures can be questioned in some cases. This is because there can be uncertainties about how the measures actually affect the demand of parking in the future. Therefore, it is important that the work with flexible parking numbers is to be evaluated and followed up. The municipalities can also learn from and help each other to get more cases where flexible parking numbers have been used to evaluate.Using flexible parking numbers applies with the current law as long as the municipalities start with fulfilling the need for parking spaces in the long term. If the parking number is to be lowered, measures that affects the need for parking spaces is to be performed, for example better public transport. There are however some cases where municipalities set lower parking numbers in order to reduce car journeys without actually influencing the demand for parking spaces.

As urban growth accelerates and the need to address environmental issues regardingtransportation is larger than ever and many policymakers have chosen to adapt park and rideas one of their methods to reduce car traffic. However, the effect from adapting the policy isnot very well understood and since the policy can directly conflict with other policies relatedto land use it is important to know which effects can be expected. By knowing which effectsto expect, policy makers can make more sustainable choices in their policy adaption.This study has been carried out using data from two different counties to find out if theeffects from park and ride differ depending on the type of environment it serves. Further, anadditional analysis has been done using temporal data to measure the effect of adapting orexpanding a park and ride facility at a public transport station or stop.It was found that in a rural setting, the relation between park and ride and the number ofpassengers at a public transport station is strong. Stations with more parking spaces hadhigher ridership. This was not the case for stations located in a suburban environment, someeffect was indicated but the relationship was not as strong. The analysis of the two countiesdata showed unreasonably high passenger increases from P&amp;R, indicating that some otherfactor also influences the result in this analysis.From the analysis of the temporal dataset the result showed that stations which adapted parkand ride did have a higher average passenger increase than the general trend within thetransport system. This indicates that park and ride do in fact increase public transportridership. / Den accelererande urbaniseringen har gjort behovet av att hantera miljöpåverkan ifråntransportsystemet större än någonsin och många beslutsfattare har valt att förordapendlarparkering (park and ride) som en metod för att minska biltrafik. Effekterna av attanvända denna planeringsmetod är dock inte fullt kända och eftersom pendlarparkeringar kanhamna i konflikt med andra planeringsmetoder som berör markanvändning så är det viktigtatt veta vilka effekter som kan förväntas av att införa pendlarparkeringar. Genom att vetavilka effekter som kan förväntas så blir möjligheterna bättre för beslutsfattare att tavälgrundade beslut och införa hållbara direktiv kopplade till stads och trafikplaneringen.Den här studien har utförts med data från två olika regioner för att ta reda på om effekterna avpendlarparkeringar skiljer sig beroende på vilken typ av miljö den är implementerad i.Dessutom har ytterligare en analys gjorts baserad på historiska data över resande, detta för attkunna mäta den direkta effekten av att införa eller expandera pendlarparkering på en hållplatsinom kollektivtrafiken.Resultatet visade att i glesbebyggda områden så var sambandet mellan antalet platser påpendlarparkeringar och antalet passagerare starkt. Statiner med fler pendlarparkeringsplatserhade fler resande än de med färre. Sambandet var inte lika starkt för stationer i förortsmiljö,ett visst samband kunde uppmätas men det var inte lika starkt. Analysen av de två regionernavisade dock på orealistiskt höga förhållanden mellan antalet pendlarparkeringsplatser ochantalet passagerare vilket indikerar att någon annan faktor också påverkar resultatet.Från analysen av historiska data över antal resande så visade resultatet att införandet avpendlarparkeringar ökar resandet med kollektivtrafiken i genomsnitt mer på de stationer därde införs jämfört med den generella trenden i kollektivtrafiksystemet. Detta indikerar attpendlarparkeringar har en positiv effekt på antalet resande med kollektivtrafiken.

Transportsektorn dras med ett antal problem som är proportionerliga mot antalet bilresor. Kommuner som vill begränsa dessa kan utnyttja markanvändningspolitiken, där kommunen ofta har rådighet över parkeringstalen, d.v.s. kraven på antal bilparkeringsplatser som ska anläggas. Forskningen pekar på att sänkta parkeringstal är effektivt för att minska antalet bilresor, men ju mer effektiv sådan policy är, desto mindre acceptabel anses den ofta vara hos allmänheten. Syftet med denna uppsats är därför att undersöka vilka faktorer som är betydelsefulla för acceptansgraden och om kommuner kan påverka dessa för att öka acceptansen. Detta görs med en enkätstudie (n=245) bland boende i femtio olika flerbostadshus i Huddinge kommun, där samband mellan enkätsvaren och uppgifter om bostadshusets fysiska miljö samt dess parkeringsplanering undersöks med hjälp av multipel regression. Resultatet visar att individers upplevelse av andra medborgares grad av acceptans, individers uppfattning den befintliga trafikproblematiken samt individens preferenser för sitt eget resande är de viktigaste faktorerna som påverkar acceptansgraden. Studien visar vidare att sänkt parkeringstal vid bostaden är korrelerat med lägre acceptans för kommunens parkeringsriktlinjer, och att det därmed är angeläget att hitta sätt att skapa mer av den acceptans som annars riskerar att urholkas när låga parkeringstal tillämpas i allt fler flerbostadshus. De flesta faktorer som kommunen har kontroll över saknar samband med acceptansgraden, men resultatet pekar på att några möjligheter finns inom cykelparkeringsförbättringar och kort gångavstånd till kollektivtrafiken. Vidare skulle kommuner kunna använda sig av placering av parkeringsplatser längre från bostaden i stället för sänkt parkeringstal för att uppnå sina mål, eftersom forskning visar på liknande effekter, samtidigt som denna studie pekar på att avståndet från bostaden inte har något samband med acceptansen. / The transportation sector is affected by multiple issues that are proportional to the number of car trips. Municipalities who wish to mitigate these issues can alter their land use policy, in which it typically has the power to set minimum parking requirements (MPRs) for properties within its boundaries. Previous research shows that lowered MPRs are effective in reducing the number of car trips, but the more effective such policy is, the less acceptable it is typically deemed to be by the public. Therefore, the purpose of this thesis is to determine which factors affect policy acceptance and how the municipality can influence this. The study is conducted using a self-administered questionnaire (n=245) with participants from fifty different apartment buildings across the Huddinge municipality. Relationships among the questionnaire data, data about the physical environment at the respondent’s house and the land use policy applied during its construction are then examined using multiple regression. The results show that individuals’ perception of acceptance among other citizens, individuals’ perceptions of traffic problems and individuals’ own preferences related to travel behaviour are the most important factors affecting acceptance. Furthermore, the study shows that lower MPRs at the respondent’s residence is correlated with lower acceptance for the municipality’s present parking policy. Therefore, it is important to find ways to engender acceptance, since support for the policy might otherwise be undermined as low MPRs get implemented in a greater share of apartment buildings. Most factors that the municipality can control are not correlated with the degree of acceptance, but the results suggest some possibilities in residential bicycle parking improvements and shorter walking distances to public transport stops. Additionally, the municipality could shift the focus of its land use policy measures toward placement of parking spaces further away from entrances, since previous research show that this may have a similar effect on car trips, and this study shows that it is not correlated with the degree of acceptance.