Notre étude s'attache à reconnaitre en Thompson Clarke, le précurseur d'un contextualisme épistémique puissant qui rend compte de l'applicabilité conceptuelle et ce que prétendent signifier les philosophes. En effet, Clarke examine les définitions épistémologiques traditionnelles à propos de la nature des concepts, du philosopher, de l'ordinarité et du scepticisme. En étudiant la nature de l'épistémologie traditionnelle, il ambitionne de substituer à la méthode austinienne, sa propre méthode d'examen des présupposés concernant la nature de l'expérience et du langage. Il défend ainsi une philosophie de la connaissance programmatique qui nous interroge sur ce que nous faisons avec nos concepts en matière de connaissance. Elle peut être réalisée à partir de l'examen du legs du scepticisme, à savoir : un nouvel éclairage apporté à la nature et aux procédures du scénario sceptique montre manifestement que la prétendue objectivité attribuée à l'ordinarité n'est que superficielle ou relative. L'idée clarkienne de relative non-objectivité n'est en aucune mesure identifiable ou réductible à un relativisme ou à un subjectivisme épistémique. Selon Clarke, il n'existe pas de traits internes à l'expérience. Il suggère simplement que l'existence des objets nous est confirmée à partir de traits caractéristiques que nous discernons, reconnaissons et identifions comme tels. Ces traits qui caractérisent les objets nous permettent d'établir l'applicabilité des concepts. Or, l'ordinarité n'a pas proprement de traits qui la restreindraient à être de telle ou telle manière, comme le prétendent les philosophes et les sceptiques. Cette prétention relève d'un rêve d'une complétude intégrale de la concevabilité de la structure de l'ordinarité partagé implicitement par les épistémologues et leurs détracteurs, les sceptiques. Le rêve et la veille ne sont pas deux expériences au sein d'un genre qu'il suffirait d'identifier. Tout comme le rêve n'a pas de traits caractéristiques qui viendraient déterminer son application ou sa non-application, l'ordinarité n'a pas de traits en propre qui nous permettent fondamentalement de déterminer et de fixer, ni une limite à celle-ci, ni une frontière absolue entre le philosophique et le non philosophique. Pour ces raisons, selon Clarke, nous ne savons pas foncièrement, ni ce qu'est un concept, ni pourquoi les concepts et leurs applications, comme ceux de Plain et de Philosophical, sont susceptibles d'être sensible au contexte. / Our study focuses on the recognition that Thompson Clarke was the precursor of a powerful epistemic contextualism which gives an account of conceptual applicability and what philosophers claim to mean. Clarke examines the traditional epistemological definitions pertaining to the nature of concepts, of philosophizing, of ordinarity and of skepticism. By studying the nature of traditional epistemology, his ambition is to substitute his own method for examining presuppositions with regard to the nature of experience and of language for that of Austin. He thus defends a philosophy of programmed understanding which makes us look at what we do with our concepts regarding understanding. It can be achieved by an examination of the legacy of skepticism, i.e. a new light thrown on the nature and the procedures of the skeptic’s scenario manifestly show that the so-called objectivity attributed to ordinarity is only superficial or relative. The Clarkian idea of relative non-objectivity is in no way identifiable with, or merely reduced to, epistemic relativism or to epistemic subjectivism. According to Clarke, experience has no internal features. He simply suggests that the existence of objects is confirmed by characteristic features that we discern, recognize and identify as such. These features which characterize objects enable us to establish the applicability of the concepts. However, ordinarity does not strictly have features which would restrict it from being thus or thus as philosophers and skeptics claim. This claim belongs to a dream of a completedness of the conceivability of the structure of ordinarity shared implicitly by the epistemologists and their detractors, the skeptics. The states of dreaming and waking are not two experiences of a type which it suffices to identify. Just as the dream does not have characteristic features which will determine its application or its non-application, ordinarity does not have features of its own which fundamentally enable us to determine and to fix either a limit to it, or an absolute boundary between the philosophical and the non philosophical. For these reasons, according to Clarke, we don’t really know what a concept is, nor why concepts and their applications, such as those of the Plain and of the Philosophical, are likely to be context-sensitive.

The thesis focused in details on libertine literary movement in 17th and 18th century and subsequently its influence in later centuries. The first part deals with the general meaning of libertine literary movement, the second part contains information about the development of libertine literary movement in the 17th century with authors Cyrano de Bergerac and Theophile de Viau. The third part concerns the development process of libertine literary movement in the 18th century, specifically through the six authors: Crébillon younger, Louvet de Couvray, Restif de la Bretonne, Boyer D'Argens, Vivan Denon and Choderlos de Laclos and four specific libertine works: Therese philosopher, No tomorrow, About education of women and Dangerous Liaisons. The fourth section contains selected authors, for which it is possible to find the impact of libertine movements on their work or lifestyle. Key words: libertine, libertine movement of 17th century, libertine movement of 18th century, Cyrano de Bergerac, Théophile de Viau, Crébillon son, Louvet de Couvray, Restif de la Bretonne, Boyer D'Argens, Vivant Denon, Choderlos de Laclos, Therese philosopher, No Tomorrow, Dangerous liaisons

Notre thèse étudie la pensée et l'action de Gaston Berger et plus particulièrement la philosophie en action qui était la sienne au sein d’un projet de réforme de la société. Par une démarche reconstructive de l’œuvre, nous questionnons chez l’auteur les liens entre philosophie et politique dont la mobilisation se veut une réponse à la crise spirituelle et morale présente en Europe au XXe siècle. En s’inspirant de la phénoménologie, Berger affirme la nécessité d’une métaphysique, seule à même de penser le monde social tel qu’il apparaît. Il construit cette recherche à partir de l’idée d’intentionnalité ainsi que de l’anthropologie prospective, sources d’un savoir sur l’esprit humain, qui lui permettent de penser la figure du « philosophe en action », lequel doit posséder un rôle décisif dans les réformes sociales et politiques. Le projet de réforme de la société, tel que Berger le met en œuvre au travers de l’éducation, concerne d’abord la formation des ingénieurs. Ainsi s’élabore une « politique de l’esprit », qui met en avant le rôle essentiel de la philosophie et des sciences humaines et sociales dans le renouvellement intellectuel et politique de la fonction de l’ingénieur. Elles permettent, selon Berger, de replacer science et technique dans la culture et de comprendre ce qui fait l’humanité de la pratique des ingénieurs et la distingue d’une simple activité technique. En cela, cette thèse étudie la création de l’INSA de Lyon en 1957 comme le témoignage exemplaire de cette politique. / The present thesis explores the thought and action of Gaston Berger and especially his “philosophy in action” in a project to reform society. In a reconstructive process of his work, we question the author’s view of the relationship between philosophy and politics, which mobilization is seen as a response to the spiritual and moral crisis in Europe in the 20th century. Inspired by phenomenology, Berger claims the necessity of metaphysics as the only way to think the social world as it appears. He builds this research on the idea of intentionality and prospective anthropology, sources of knowledge about the human mind, which allows him to think the figure of the "philosopher in action" with a decisive role in the social and political reforms. The proposed reform of society, such as Berger implements through education, concerns at first the training of engineers. This is how a “politics of the spirit” is developed, which highlights the essential role of philosophy, human and social sciences in the intellectual and political renewal of the engineer’s function. They allow, according to Berger, to put science and technology back into culture and understand what makes the humanity of engineer’s practice and distinguishes it from a mere technical activity. In that respect, this thesis studies the creation of the INSA in Lyon in 1957 as the exemplary expression of this policy.

Notre thèse traite du thème : « Fondements philosophiques du projet d’un État mondial chez Éric Weil. » Il faut relever que l’idée d’un État mondial a effleuré l’esprit de beaucoup de penseurs avant et après Weil lui-même. Sans revenir en détails sur les idées cosmopolitiques qui ont été développées depuis les stoïciens jusqu’aux auteurs contemporains, on peut retenir que l’idée d’un État mondial a toujours visé un seul et unique but : instaurer une paix perpétuelle dans le monde. Ce qui fait la particularité et l’originalité de l’approche weilienne de cette question, c’est qu’elle centre la problématique de l’État mondial sur la question fondamentale de sa philosophie : le problème de la violence. Si le problème de la violence du langage a été thématisé et traité de façon systématique dans la Logique de la philosophie ; si le problème de la violence en l’homme a pu trouver sa solution dans la Philosophie morale; si la violence de la nature a pu trouver sa solution dans l’organisation rationnelle du travail social ; si la violence entre les individus à l’intérieur des États particuliers a pu trouver sa solution dans le cadre des États-nations, il restait à Weil de résoudre le problème non moins fondamental de la violence entre les États. C’est dans ce but qu’il a envisagé dans la troisième et dernière partie de la Philosophie politique la création d’un État mondial dont le but est « la satisfaction des individus raisonnables à l’intérieur d’États particuliers libres ». En confrontant la conception weilienne de l’État mondial avec celles de Maritain et de Kojève notamment, nous sommes arrivés à la conclusion que Weil a utilisé l’appellation « État mondial » pour désigner, une administration mondiale de la société mondiale du travail social. En somme, la conception weilienne de l’État mondial est pertinente et pleinement justifiée sur le plan philosophique, sur le plan de sa philosophie. Elle est philosophiquement justifiée parce qu’elle trouve ses fondements dans la Logique de la philosophie de Weil. Elle est pleinement justifiée, parce qu’elle permet de surmonter les obstacles comme le nationalisme, l’impérialisme, le conflit des cultures par l’idée de la promotion d’un État mondial pluraliste qui préserve la diversité des formes de vie. Elle est pleinement justifiée, parce qu’elle permet de surmonter l’obstacle du droit des nations à disposer d’elles-mêmes par la garantie de la souveraineté bien comprise des États particuliers dans le cadre de l’État mondial. Elle est pleinement justifiée, parce qu’elle vise à réaliser un monde sensé, à réaliser un monde de raison où vivrons des hommes libres, égaux et raisonnables. En un mot, la création de l’État mondial, telle que l’a envisagée Weil à la fin de la Philosophie politique, permet à l’humanité de se réconcilier avec elle-même. / Abstract Our thesis deals with the theme: “Philosophical foundations for a world state project by Éric Weil”. It should be mentioned that the idea of a world state has been explored by many thinkers before and after Weil. Without going into details about the cosmopolitan ideas that have been developed since the Stoicians to contemporary authors, it is to be noted that the idea of a world state has always aimed at single and unique objective: establishing everlasting world peace. The specificity and originality of Weil’s approach resides in his questioning the philosophy underlying the world state concept, that is, the issue of violence. If the problem of the violence of language has been thematized and systematically treated in the Logic of Philosophy. Even though man-inherent violence issue is solved by Moral philosophy, and nature-inherent violence is solved to rational organization of social labour, and violence among individuals dealt with within the framework of nation-states, the fundamental issue of inter-state violence remains unsolved. In the third and last part of his book, Political Philosophy, he suggests the creation of a world state whose aim is “the satisfaction of reasonable individuals within specific free states”Comparing the Weilian conception of the world state with that of Maritain and Kojeve leads to the conclusion that Weil used the term "world state" to designate a global administration of the world society’s social work. In short, the Weilian conception of the world state is philosophically relevant and fully justified. It is philosophically justified because it finds its foundations in the Logic of the philosophy of Weil. It is fully justified because it overcomes such obstacles as nationalism, imperialism, the conflict of cultures by the idea of promoting a pluralistic world state that preserves the diversity of life forms. It is fully justified because it overcomes the obstacle of the right of nations to self-determination by guaranteeing the sovereignty, well understood by sovereign States within the framework of the world state. It is fully justified, because it aims to realize a sensible world, a world of reason in which free, equal and reasonable men will live together. In short, the creation of the world state, as envisioned by Weil at the end of Political Philosophy, would enable mankind to reconcile with itself.

The text of this work is primarily based on the works of Wolfgang Brezinka, focusing on the philosophy of education and on many sociological works by Zygmunt Bauman, which are cited for better orientation in the philosophical-educational context of the chapter focusing on the philosophy of education used in the antiquity The aim was to present the reader with at least a brief awareness of the individual aspects of the philosophy of education as presented by Brezinka and to supplement it with the possible aspects that can be taken from Bauman, who primarily focuses on exploring the socio-cultural phenomena of the modern society. Gradually, the essential characteristics, features, and characteristics that accompanied the upbringing in antiquity are presented, just as the educational aims and beliefs in relation to the upbringing that is presented by Brezinka. Furthermore, there are discussed and examined the pitfalls of modernism and postmodernism in relation to personality, culture, society and philosophical-educational possibilities as pointed out by Bauman. The amount of works on the philosophy of education is insufficient and even here, of course, it has not been possible to cover all the philosophical aspects of education which are available to the authors dealing with the philosophy of education, yet...

Medieval philosophy in the Arabic world has sought to harmonize the Greek philosophic tradition with the Islamic religion. Many rulers, scholars and theologians were against this intellectual approach and defend the Islam from the philosophers. The position of philosophy and its followers in the Arabic realm was therefore uneasy. Many scholars had to hide their opinions between the lines and avoid to doing philosophy publicly. Alongside the unfriendly environment, the position of philosophy in the Arabic society was also determined by common notion of scholars, that the revealing of the philosophical thoughts can be harmful for uneducated citizen, as well as influenced by mysticism. The aim of this thesis is to summarize the main philosophical approaches responding to the problematic position of philosophy in the Arabic world. Crucial will be the philosophy of solitary by Ibn Bajja, where the author seeks to bond tight the philosopher's life with the city and thus present a new role of philosopher in the Arabic society. Keywords Ibn Bajja, Rule of the Solitary, Al-Farabi, Political Regime, Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, Plato, The Republic, political philosophy, mysticism, ethics, philosopher, virtue, city, weeds, knowledge, governance, happiness

Rembrandt's use of light in his self-portraits has received an abundance of scholarly attention throughout the centuries--and for good reason. His light delights the eye and captivates the mind with its textural quality and dramatic presence. At a time of scientific inquiry and religious reformation that was reshaping the way individuals understood themselves and their relationship to God, Rembrandt's light may carry more intellectual significance than has previously been thought. Looking at Rembrandt's oeuvre of self-portraits chronologically, it is apparent that something happened in his life or in his understanding that caused him to change how he used light. A distinct and consistent shift can be observed in the location and intensity of light to the crown of the forehead. This change indicates that light held particular significance for Rembrandt and that its connection to the head was a signifier with intentional meaning. This meaning could have developed as a result of Rembrandt's exposure to and interest in the contemporary theological and philosophical debates of the seventeenth-century Netherlands, particularly those relating to the physical and eternal nature of the soul stemming from the writings of René Descartes. The relative religious and intellectual freedom of the Dutch Republic provided a safe place for Descartes to publish and defend his metaphysical ideas relating to the nature of the soul and know-ability of God through personal intellectual inquiry. The widespread disturbance to established thought caused by his ideas and methods sped their dissemination into the early seventeenth-century discourse. Rembrandt's associations with the educated elite, particularly Constantijn Huygens and Jan Six, increases the probability that he knew of this new philosophy and had the opportunity to consider its relevance to his own quest for self-knowledge. With his particular emphasis on self-exploration and expression, demonstrated through his prolific oeuvre of self-portraits, and his inclination toward emotive, complex, and interdenominational religious works, it follows that Rembrandt would be eager to embrace Descartes' metaphysics and demonstrate his awareness through his self-portraits. Light on the forehead becomes a metaphor for enlightenment and is the key to reading Rembrandt's late self-portraits through the lens of Cartesian influence.

Andrew Michael Ramsay fut un intellectuel écossais du Siècle des Lumières, à la fois "aventurier religieux", auteur politique et franc-maçon. Élevé dans le protestantisme, il rechercha un équilibre spirituel et une doctrine plus conformes à ses vœux. Il voyagea dans de nombreux pays pour atteindre ce but et finalement trouva auprès de Fénelon, archevêque de Cambrai, et de Madame Guyon, adepte du "Pur Amour", un père et une mère spirituels. Sous leur influence, il finit par adhérer à un catholicisme de nature gallicane caractérisé par un appel constant à l’intériorité. De son œuvre, émergent quatre traités : l’Essai sur le gouvernement civil(1721) dans lequel il démontre que la meilleure forme de gouvernement est la monarchie absolue, héréditaire, de droit divin. Fervent jacobite, il espérait le retour de la dynastie Stuart sur le trône d’Angleterre. L’Histoire de la vie de Fénelon (1727) traite principalement des péripéties de sa conversion par le prélat; Les Voyages de Cyrus (1727), roman didactique, apologétique et politique, raconte la formation d’un jeune prince accompli, rempli de sagesse et de piété. Son ouvrage central, Les principes philosophiques de la religion naturelle et révélée (1749), communément appelé le "Great Work" ne parut qu’après sa mort. Le franc-maçon perçait alors sous le philosophe. Son Discours (1737) fait remonter les origines de l’Ordre aux croisades et, surtout, fixe les obligations auxquelles est soumis tout franc-maçon, qui lui sont rappelées au moment de son initiation. Cet homme, complexe, mystique et politique réussit l’exploit de faire changer radicalement cette organisation très attachée à ses traditions qu’est la Franc-maçonnerie. / Andrew Michael Ramsay was a Scottish intellectual of the Enlightenment and was at the same time a "religious adventurer", a political author and a freemason. Born into a Protestant family, he undertook a search for spiritual stability and for a doctrine more in line with his aspirations. In this quest, he journeyed through several countries, and he eventually found in the company of Fénelon, archbishop of Cambrai, and of Madame Guyon, an advocate of the doctrine of "Pure Love", a spiritual father and mother. Inspired by them, he finally converted to a Gallican variety of Catholicism which was at the root of his call to a life of constant soul-searching. From his work four treatises emerge: An Essay upon Civil Government (1721), in which he sought to show that the best form of government is an absolute, hereditary monarchy, based on divine right. As a zealous Jacobite, he longed for the return of the Stuarts to the British throne. The Life of Fénelon (1727) deals mainly with the various stages leading up to his conversion by the prelate. The Travel of Cyrus (1727) is a didactic, apologetic and political novel which relates the education of a young accomplished prince endowed with wisdom and piety. His most considerable work is The Philosophical Principles of Natural and Revealed Religion (1749), commonly called the "Great Work", which was published posthumously. Here the freemason can be seen beneath the philosopher. His Discourse (1737) traces the origins of Freemasonry back to the crusades, and also sets out the obligations that every freemason must adhere to and which he is reminded of during his initiation. His success in radically changing this organization so deeply attached to its customs remains the lasting legacy of this complex, mystical and political figure who is Andrew Michael Ramsay.

Die Untersuchung widmet sich der visuellen Thematisierung autoreferentieller Fragestellungen zur Genese sowie den Grundlagen und Zielen von Malerei in der italienischen Druckgraphik des ausgehenden 16. und 17. Jahrhunderts. Erstmals wird diese bildliche Auseinandersetzung mit abstrakten kunsttheoretischen Inhalten zum zentralen Untersuchungsgegenstand erklärt und anhand von vier hinsichtlich ihrer ikonographischen Dichte herausragenden druckgraphischen Beispielen - Federico Zuccaris Lamento della pittura, Pietro Testas Liceo della pittura, Salvator Rosas Genio di Salvator Rosa und Carlo Marattas Scuola del Disegno – vergleichend analysiert. Neben der Rekonstruktion der Entstehungszusammenhänge befasst sich die Analyse mit dem Verhältnis von Text und Bild, offenen Fragen der Ikonographie, der zeitgenössischen Verlagssituation sowie dem Adressatenkreis und somit schließlich der Motivation für jene komplexen bildlichen Reflexionen über Malerei. Als zentrale Gemeinsamkeit der kunsttheoretischen Blätter, welche im Kontext der römischen Akademiebewegung entstanden sind, konnte das Bestreben, die Malerei im Sinne einer Metawissenschaft über das neuzeitliche Wissenschaftspanorama hinauszuheben, erschlossen werden. Anhand einer umfassenden Neubewertung der einzigartigen Ikonographien wird erstmals aufgezeigt, dass dem Vergleich zwischen Malerei und Philosophie als der Mutter aller Wissenschaften in der visuellen Kunsttheorie des 17. Jahrhunderts eine vollkommen neuartige Bedeutung zukommt. Dieser hat neue Spielräume für die bildliche Definition des künstlerischen Selbstverständnisses eröffnet, die der traditionelle, aus dem Horazschen Diktum „Ut pictura poesis“ hervorgegangene Vergleich zwischen Malerei und Dichtung nicht in ausreichender Form bereit hielt. Folglich thematisiert die vorliegende Untersuchung auch die Frage nach dem spezifischen reflexiven Potenzial des Bildes, seiner medialen Autonomie und seiner möglichen Vorrangstellung gegenüber dem Medium der Sprache. / The study deals with the pictorial examination of self-implicating topics relating to the genesis, the fundamentals and the aims of painting by Italian printmaking of the late 16th and 17th century. For the first time, a research is focussed on the pictorial examination of abstract contents of art theory as shown in the selected and compared examples which are extraordinary regarding their iconographical concentration – the Lamento della pittura by Federico Zuccari, the Liceo della pittura by Pierto Testa, the Genio di Salvator Rosa by Salvator Rosa and the Scuola del Disegno by Carlo Maratta. Besides the reconstruction of the history of origins the research is dealing with the relationship of image and text, problems of iconography, the coeval publishing situation as well as the target audience of these prints and finally the motivation for those very complex visual reflections on painting. As essential similarity of those arttheoretical prints, which all araised within the context of the Roman Art Accademy, has been determined the ambition to specify painting as a kind of Meta-science, which is somehow superior to all other modern age sciences. By means of an extensive reevaluation of the unique iconography of every single sheet it became feasible to illustrate that the comparison between painting and philosophy as the origin of the entire spectrum of sciences has attained a completely new dimension within the pictorial art theory of the 17th century. The novel comparison has opened a wider range and diversity for the visual definition of the artists` self-conception compared to the traditional comparison between painting and poetry, as it emerged from the dictum „Ut pictura poesis“ by Horaz. Accordingly the study deals with the question of the particular reflexive capability of images, their medial autonomy and their potential primacy over language.

Dissertation .. The approaches towards death and burial in different historical epochs of mankind dealing with a view of death in intellectual conceptions during the history. People have been engaged in the question of life and deaths for ages. It is one of the oldest, the hardests and the most fundamental questions which are asked. We can think of the death in two levels: a general and a personal. The comprehension of deaths was developing in history. Thesis traces, what affected and how it is possible, that the today`s subject of personal death states taboo, even if masmedia floods us with death of others. For understanding, the thesis goes throught history. From the methodological aspects it follows the time line, divides the history into ancient world, the Middle Ages and modern period, as well as on horizontal line following individually nations and their intellectual directions.