This master thesis tries to bold and underline the connection and intersection between arbitration and corruption. The main duty of arbitrators is the settlement of disputes, and their scope of power is determined by the parties. However, it is recognized through the jurisprudence of international arbitration that not only are arbitrators responsible for making decisions and enforceable awards about the disputes of parties, but also they are in charge of the promotion of justice, moralities, and public interest. If arbitrators violate the international rule of law including equality, good faith, and moralities, the arbitration will not seem legitimate. It has been recognized that solidarity and collaboration are needed for elimination of corruption, choosing the passive role in the arbitral proceeding against corruption helps it to remain concealed and also alive. Arbitrators should not be indifferent and apathetic about the matter of corruption in the arbitral cases. The arbitration proceedings can be treated as a legitimizing instrument for the parties engaged in corruption due to the principle of confidentiality. Therefore, being inactive against suspicious circumstances of illegality or allegation of corruption may endanger arbitrators to criminal charges, which are based on national applicable laws, such as facilitation of illicit enrichment of parties or assisting fraud. It has been proved through the transnational public policy and campaign against corruption that it affects public interests, and the main cost would be paid by taxpayers and citizens. All social, political and economic rights of citizens are being eroded and undermined by the evil of corruption. Anti-corruption norms are fundamental parts of sustainable development goals. The arbitrators are an indispensable part of administration of justice against corruption in private dispute settlement. They have a public responsibility for eradication of corruption as a supporter of justice and moralities in the society. The importance of corruption and public policy lead the tribunal to the guideline that arbitral tribunals should not delay in raising the matter of corruption where the parties have not raised any allegation of corruption, and they can exercise sua sponte investigation about the corruption, they have to be pro-active in the arbitral proceedings against corruption instead of taking an eyes shut and apathetic approach. / این پایان نامه کارشناسی ارشد، تلاش دارد تا ارتباط میان داوری و فساد را برجسته ساخته و مورد توجه قرار دهد. وظیفه اصلی داوران در حل و فصل اختلافات و حدود اختیارات ایشان منبعث از توافق طرفین اختلاف است، با این حال، رویه داوری های بین المللی، مشخص ساخته است که داوران نه تنها جهت صدور آرای قابل اجرا، مسئولیت دارند، بلکه  در مقام تحقق و ارتقای عدالت، اخلاق و تامین منافع عمومی نیز مسئولیت دارند. اگر داوران اصل مترقی حاکمیت قانون  و اصولی همچون برابری، حسن نیت و یا اخلاقیات را نقض کنند، داوری در چنین وضعیتی مشروعیتی نخواهد داشت. امروزه، همبستگی و همکاری به عنوان عواملی حیاتی برای محو فساد مورد شناسایی قرار گرفته است و انتخاب رویکرد بی طرفی و انفعال در روند داوری و در مواجهه با فساد، به پنهان شدن و ادامه حیات این پدیده شوم کمک می کند. داوران نمی بایست در خصوص فساد در پرونده های ارجاعی، بی طرف و منفعل باشند. رسیدگی های داوری می تواند به عنوان وسیله ای جهت مشروعیت بخشی و ابزاری برای قانونی جلوه دادن فساد تحت اصل محرمانگی توسط طرفین مورد سوء استفاده قرار گیرد. بنابراین، غیرفعال بودن داوران در برابر شرایط و وضعیتهای مشکوک به فساد و یا انفعال آنها در برابر ادعاهای فساد از سوی طرفین،  ممکن است داوران را در مظان اتهامات و تضامین کیفری قرار دهد که بر اساس قانون حاکم، مشخص خواهد شد. این اتهامات می تواند در برگیرنده جرائمی همچون تسهیل و معاونت در داران شدن غیر عادلانه یا معاونت در کلاهبرداری نیز بشود. بواسطه نظم عمومی بین المللی، کمپین و اتحادی گسترده علیه فساد شکل گرفته است، مبنی بر اینکه فساد، منافع عموم را متاثر می سازد و هزینه اصلی آن نیز بواسطه پرداخت مالیات بر عموم مردم و شهروندان تحمیل می شود. همه حقوق بنیادین شهروندان از قبیل حقوق اجتماعی، سیاسی و اقتصادی آنها بواسطه فساد مخدوش و تنزل می یابند. استانداردهای مبارزه با فساد، بخشی عمده و بنیادین از اهداف توسعه پایدار محسوب می شوند. فی الواقع داوران جزیی جدایی ناپذیر از نظام قضائی و دادگستری علیه فساد در چارچوب حل و فصل اختلافات مردم به شکل خصوصی، محسوب می شوند. داوران عموما برای محو فساد به عنوان خدمتگذاران و سربازان عدالت و اصول اخلاقی در جامعه، مسئولیت بر عهده دارند.  اهمیت فساد و نظم عمومی باعث می شود تا دیوانهای داوری این اصل و مسیر را دنبال کنند که دیوانهای داوری نمی بایست در طرح و پیگیری موضوع فساد حتی در آنجاییکه هیچیک از طرفین اختلاف آنرا مطرح نساخته است، تاخیر کنند و داوران می توانند بدون نیاز به درخواست طرفین و بر اساس تشخیص خود، تحقیات خود را در خصوص فساد اجرایی نمایند.، داوران می بایست در جریان و روند رسیدگی در برابر فساد، فعال باشند و بجای اتخاذ رویکرد چشمان بسته و انفعال در برابر پدیده شوم فساد، نقشی فعال در روند داوری را بر علیه فساد اتخاذ نمایند.

In the period from 2009-2020, South Africa has witnessed the rise of "lawfare". Lawfare is understood as the judicialisation of politics - turning to the courts and the use of the law to resolve broadly political matters. This thesis explores the unfolding implications of the judicialisation of politics for judicial legitimacy. In the displacement of the political into the judicial the reach of the courts is expanded and the legitimacy of courts engaging in a "political" role is questioned. Situated in the field of judicial-political dynamics, the interplay between law and politics is observed through the adoption of a historical-institutionalist model. This thesis identifies the causes of the judicialisation of politics and then traces its consequences for broader constitutional stability and the impact on the judicial institution. Guidelines for the Court to navigate lawfare to achieve institutional resilience and maintain judicial legitimacy are then proposed. Judicialisation of politics is caused primarily through the failures of the other branches of government to fulfil their assigned constitutional role. Institutional imbalance in a dominant party democracy means that opposition parties and civil society organisations are left with little recourse but to appeal to the Court to be a constitutional bulwark. The Court is then compelled to step into the breach and fill the accountability vacuum. In identifying the causes of judicialisation, a fuller understanding of Lawfare emerges, expanding current scholarship beyond its traditionally abusive characterisation. It posits a duality to Lawfare in that it can be both an abuse of law and a last line of defence. Through observing the judicial political interactions, a trajectory from the judicialisation of politics to the politicisation of law is mapped. The politicisation of law sees political power refocused on the courts, exposing them to political aggression and attack by the dominant party. The judicialisation of politics that seeks accountability from recalcitrant political actors asks much of the courts, at a time when ensuring executive oversight is the most dangerous, because of the ease with which a hostile executive in a dominant party democracy can implement measures that may undermine the independence of the judiciary. The Constitutional Court has shown a remarkable ability to navigate this era of Lawfare, remaining resolute under fire. However, the more successful the Court is in holding the line against executive abuse of power, the more the judicial route is identified as a powerful weapon to achieve more abusive political objectives. The relationship between Lawfare and legitimacy is identified as a wicked problem that demands expanding boundaries to observe the courts influence on the political environment, and the political environment's influence on the judicial role and its legitimacy. Through advancing a multi-dimensional paradigm of judicial legitimacy, the dialectics of judicial legitimacy are shown to be aggravated by the judicialisation of politics. In this respect it is argued that where the foundations and assumptions on which legitimacy is predicated shift, legitimacy must be re-examined. It is therefore argued that in a culture marked by an impunified disregard of non-judicial regulatory enforcement and increasing non-compliance with judicial orders, the impulse to preserve legitimacy through a detached, formalist stance will not be sufficient. Judicial legitimacy must be relocated in the ability of the Court to be responsive. Pulled into the role of judicial statesmanship, the Court must adopt a robust approach to assertively uphold the rule of law. In tracking the unfolding consequences of the judicialisation of politics, the Court is asked to resolve matters beyond its institutional capabilities. Absent the normative commitment to the rule of law, the internationalisation of constitutional norms, and the political interest to implement remedial orders, the Court is unable to effect workable relief. In tracing the dangers of the continued trend of Lawfare, the thesis sketches a downward spiral of reputational strength of the Court and a decline in democratic responsibility. This leads to an inability to achieve effective reform that ends in disenchantment, questioning the faith placed in the Constitution. It depicts how the Constitutional Court as 'constitutional saviour' can unravel into constitutional blame. The Constitutional Court has been able to hold the line in this era of Lawfare and repel assaults on its integrity and efforts to undermine its independence. However, without a broader culture of commitment to the rule of law, civil education and a suffusion of constitutional responsibility beyond the judiciary, the Court will not be able to continue to shoulder the weight of what is asked of it. This research depicts a circular model of Lawfare and legitimacy, where Lawfare is predicated on judicial legitimacy, but an overreliance on Lawfare will destroy judicial legitimacy.

Governance is derived from the French word "gouverner", so Good Governance refers to the way to control, steer, rule, and direct the organizations by the individuals who are in charge of the management affairs. The study uses the theory of Alexis de Tocqueville (1956), which emphasizes the importance of the presence of democracy to manage the internal tasks of the organizations, so these NGOs can play a role in fostering democracy in civil society. The study intends to find out the imperatives of good NGOs' governance through linking the daily operational tasks and the applications of democratic principles inside NGOs by using the qualitative research method to collect information and compare the implementation of the imperatives of good NGOs' governance in organizations in Berlin, Cairo, and Prague. Thus, the study presents two normative frameworks; the first one is to conceptualize and operationalize the imperatives of good NGOs' governance through integrating democratic theory with the representation and participation schools, and the second one is to examine the influence of the internal and external factors on the implementation of these imperatives in NGOs. The thesis categorizes the "Good NGOs' Governance Imperatives" into managerial imperatives and democratic imperatives. The managerial...

L’arbitrage international d’investissement se voit de plus en plus confronté à des enjeux originellement hermétiques à l’arbitrage : la protection des droits de l’homme. En effet, le développement d’investissements ayant le monopole de certains services publics offense parfois les droits économiques et sociaux des populations des États hôtes. Si ces mêmes États tentent d’adopter des réglementations protectrices de ces droits, ils se voient opposer l’arbitrage d’investissement pour violations d’un traité bilatéral d’investissement. La jurisprudence en la matière est en pleine évolution, mais son étude permet de souligner d’importants problèmes de sécurité juridique dans les sentences arbitrales, ne permettant pas de garantir ces droits fondamentaux. L’accumulation de ces deux problématiques soulève alors la question de la protection de l’état de droit par l’arbitrage d’investissement, mettant à mal la légitimité de ce mécanisme alternatif de règlement des différends. / Initially outside of its scope of application, international investment arbitration is increasingly facing human rightsprotection issues. The development of investments dealing with public services has led to violations of socio-economic rights for host States’ populations. When States tried to adopt regulations toprotect those rights, they were brought to arbitration for breaching their Bilateral Investment Treaty obligations. The human rights case law in investment arbitration is developing and quickly evolving. Nevertheless, its analysis enables to highlight important legal certainty issues, rendering difficult the protection of economic, social,and cultural rights. Facing this, the legitimacy of the system is disputed and the protection of the rule of law by international investment arbitration is seriously challenged.

Bakgrund: Behovet av en fungerande välfärd har tydliggjorts till följd av Covid-19. Välfärd är ett samlingsbegrepp och förses via offentlig sektor. De statliga myndigheternas uppdrag är att upprätthålla välfärden genom att arbeta kvalitetssäkert och kostnadseffektivt. Controllerns uppgift är vidare att analysera, styra och stötta verksamheten. Problematiskt är emellertid hur controllern genomför sina arbetsuppgifter genom att kombinera kostnadseffektivitet och kvalitetssäkring, samt huruvida den innehar förståelse för innebörden av att skapa välfärd. Vidare anges det vara mer komplicerat för en individ som kan ekonomi att därefter lära sig verksamheten, än vice versa. Av intresse är därför betydelsen av erfarenhet respektive utbildning för controllerns utförande av dess arbetsuppgifter.   Syfte: Syftet med studien är att bidra med kunskap kring hur en controller inom offentlig sektor bidrar till upprätthållande av välfärd, samt att studera betydelsen av erfarenhet respektive utbildning för arbetet. Metod: Uppsatsen tillämpar en kvalitativ forskningsmetod med ett tolkande synsätt där empiri samlas in genom semistrukturerade intervjuer. Myndigheter som inkluderas i studien är Kronofogden, Centrala studiestödsnämnden, Försäkringskassan, E-hälsomyndigheten samt Arbetsförmedlingen.  Slutsats: Controllern bidrar indirekt med att upprätthålla välfärd genom att bryta ner myndighetens övergripande mål, förhålla sig och arbeta utifrån aktuella lagar och riktlinjer som sätts av respektive departement, utforma beslutsunderlag samt kombinera kostnadseffektivitet och arbete med kvalitetssäkring. Vidare anses erfarenhet och utbildning utgöra en betydande del vad gäller controllerns utförande av arbetsuppgifterna som i sin tur leder till att upprätthålla välfärd. / Background: The need for a functioning welfare has been clarified as a result of Covid-19. Welfare is a collective concept, provided by the public sector. The task of government agencies is to maintain welfare by working quality-assuredly and cost-effectively. The controller's task is to analyze, control and support the business. Problematic however, is how the controller performs its tasks by combining cost-effectiveness and quality assurance, and whether they have an understanding of the meaning of creating welfare. Furthermore, it is stated to be more complicated for an individual who knows finances to subsequently learn the business, than vice versa. Of interest is therefore the importance of experience and education for the controller's performance of its tasks. Purpose: The purpose of the study is to bestow knowledge regarding how a controller in the public sector contributes to the maintenance of welfare, and to study the importance of experience and education. Method: The study applies a qualitative research method with an interpretive approach, where empirical data is collected through semi-structured interviews. Authorities included in the study are Kronofogden, Centrala studiestödsnämnden, Försäkringskassan, E-hälsomyndigheten samt Arbetsförmedlingen.  Conclusions: The controller contributes indirectly to maintaining welfare by breaking down the authority's overall goals, relating to and working on the basis of current laws and guidelines set by each ministry, designing a decision basis and combining cost efficiency with quality assurance. Furthermore, experience and education are considered to be a significant part of the controller's performance of the tasks, which indirectly leads to maintaining welfare.

<p>Canadian courts have struggled to develop a consistent and coherent approach for reviewing administrative decision-making. In particular, they have been unable to create a workable framework that will guide when the courts will show deference to administrative tribunal interpretations of law and when they will interfere with them, leading to a system of administrative law that is unpredictable and disorderly. This thesis develops a novel approach to administrative review centered on a conception of judicial due-deference that is correlated with a Razian account of legitimate authority. My argument is that administrative review is best understood as an exercise of inter-institutional decision-making in which diverse institutions within the meta-institution of government must work together to arrive at decisions that best secure government objectives. When reviewing courts recognize that administrative actors are better situated in particular circumstances to make decisions than the courts, they ought to show deference. On the other hand, when courts are better situated to handle these matters, deference is not to be shown. I begin in Part I by analyzing the history of Canadian administrative law jurisprudence through to the Supreme Court’s 2008 decision in <em>Dunsmuir</em>, highlighting the competing principles of the rule of law and democracy that animate the ‘Diceyan Dialectic’. In Part II, I articulate a complex theory of inter-institutional reasoning that demonstrates the important role of deference and authority in good government decision-making. In Part III, I apply this model to the circumstances of Canadian administrative review. I show how there are certain institutional strengths, as well as key limitations, with respect to how our superior courts can play a role in upholding the Rule of Law and democracy. Ultimately, I argue that the superior courts must pay attention to the unique institutional placement of administrative actors relative to them in order to discern if these non-curial actors possess greater authority and hence ought to be shown deference.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

SKV and Tullverket have several important tools and methods available in each activity to ensure that taxes and fees are paid and charged rightfully. Among other things they use tax or customs surcharges, targeted and general third party injunctions or targeted and general third party audits. The targeted controls, ergo targeted injunctions and audits, are targeted towards specific persons or documents while during the general controls these are not specified. The methods have repeatedly been the subject of discussions and attempts to simplify the tax procedure and increase the Rule of Law for the individual. The government appointed a commission on March 8 of the year 2012 with the assignment to prepare proposals to increase the Rule of Law in the tax procedure. The assignment was therefore to analyze the areas of tax and customs injunctions, reimbursement because of expenses and agents and also third party controls. This study was delimited, partly due to space considerations, to examine the commission's proposals to increase the Rule of Law regarding third party controls as well as to SKV as the investigating authority. Consideration will therefore not be given to Tullverket as the investigating authority. The system concerning third party controls has repeatedly over the years been the subject of criticism and debate. Not least because of that the general third party controls are indistinct due to the fact that the person who is the subject of the control is not aware of the control and that the procedure is considered to contravene the protection of privacy in the RF and the right to private and family life of the ECHR. It has hence been considered that there is a need for change. The commission would thus investigate and make proposals to increase the Rule of Law but given the precondition that third party control, including general controls, would still remain as control methods. Therefore the commission had to consider a proportionality assessment between the protection of individual privacy and SKV:s control effectiveness. In this study focus was on SOU 2013:62 and the consultation bodies’ responses received on account of the proposals. The commission proposed that the decision making on general third party controls will stay with SKV as the decision making authority and that it should be clarified in the legislative text that SKV has to relate to the principle of proportionality when deciding on general third party controls. The commission also proposed that it should be clarified in the legislative text that SKV only may search for documents and information covered by the decision but that surplus information that was discovered spontaneously also may be used. The commission held that there is no need for clarification of the legislative texts regarding that SKV shall take into account the proportionality principle in the choice of method and choice of control object. The commission also held that there is no need to legislate any imposes for SKV towards the subject of control to inform about the control if the information gathered nevertheless is intended to be the basis for decisions on taxation. Furthermore it was proposed an imposition of legislative texts regarding that the controlled, in connection with the information about the control, should be given the opportunity to request documents and information excluded from the basis for decisions on taxation. That is, after the control is carried out and provided that the information will be added basis for decisions on taxation. The majority of the consultation bodies felt that the commission was inadequate, that the proposals did not add anything new on the merits and that a new commission should be appointed with the mission to increase the Rule of Law in the tax procedure. The studies’ concluding parts contain a pro et contra analysis of the proposals on the basis of the consultation bodies’ responses, my own conclusions and general concluding comments. In these parts my own proposals are submitted for improvement to further enhance the Rule of Law in tax procedures. My own proposals are due to that the commission in my opinion may be deemed deficient in several aspects. / SKV och Tullverket har flera viktiga metoder att tillgå i respektive verksamhet för att säkerställa att skatter och avgifter lämnas och tas ut rätteligen. Bland annat så kan kontrollmyndigheterna använda skatte- eller tulltillägg, riktade och generella tredjemansförelägganden eller riktade och generella tredjemansrevisioner. Vid riktade kontroller, ergo riktade förelägganden och riktade revisioner, är kontrollerna riktade mot specificerade personer eller handlingar och vid generella kontroller är dessa inte specificerade. Metoderna har upprepade gånger varit föremål för diskussioner och försök att förenkla skatteförfarandet och öka rättssäkerheten för den enskilde. Regeringen tillsatte den 8 mars år 2012 en utredning med uppgiften att framställa förslag för en ökad rättssäkerhet i skatteförfarandet. Uppdraget var att undersöka områdena skatte- och tulltillägg, ersättning för kostnader och ombud samt tredjemanskontroller. Denna studie har bland annat på grund av utrymmesskäl avgränsats till att undersöka utredningens förslag som avser ökad rättssäkerhet vid tredjemanskontroller samt till SKV som kontrollerande myndighet. Hänsyn kommer således inte tas till Tullverket som kontrollerande myndighet. Tredjemanskontrollförfarandet har upprepade gånger genom åren varit föremål för kritik och diskussioner. Inte minst för att generella tredjemanskontroller ansetts olämpliga på grund av att den kontrollerade inte har vetskap om att denna är eller har varit föremål för kontroll samt att förfarandet ansetts strida mot integritetsskyddet i RF och rätten till privat- och familjeliv i EKMR. Det har därav ansetts att behov av förändring föreligger. Utredningen skulle således undersöka och lämna förslag för att öka rättssäkerheten för den enskilde men med hänsyn till att tredjemanskontroller, i dessa inbegripet generella tredjemanskontroller, alltjämt skulle kvarstå som metod i SKV:s kontrollverksamhet. Det fordrades följaktligen av utredningen att genomföra en proportionalitetsavvägning mellan skyddet för den enskildes integritet och SKV:s kontrolleffektivitet. I denna studie har fokus lagts på SOU 2013:62 och de remissyttranden som inkommit med anledning av förslagen. Utredningen föreslog att beslutsordningen vid generella tredjemanskontroller ska stå oförändrad med SKV som beslutsfattande instans och att det ska förtydligas i lagtext att SKV ska förhålla sig till proportionalitetsprincipen vid beslut om generella tredjemanskontroller. Utredningen föreslog även att det ska förtydligas i lagtext att SKV endast får eftersöka handlingar och uppgifter som omfattas av beslutet men att överskottsinformation som anträffats spontant får användas. Vidare angav utredningen att det inte behövs något förtydligande i lagtext avseende att SKV ska beakta proportionalitetsprincipen vid val av metod och val av kontrollobjekt. Utredningen angav även att det inte behöver införas någon underrättelseskyldighet för SKV gentemot den kontrollerade om informationen som inhämtats ändå inte är avsedd att läggas till grund för beslut om beskattning. Vidare föreslogs ett införande i lagtext avseende att den kontrollerade ska ges möjlighet att begära handlingar och uppgifter undantagna från att läggas till grund för beslut om beskattning i samband med en underrättelse, det vill säga efter att kontrollen ägt rum och under förutsättning att informationen kommer läggas till grund för beslut om beskattning. Flertalet remissinstanser ansåg att utredningen var bristfällig, att förslagen inte innebar någonting nytt i sak samt att en ny utredning bör tillsättas med uppdrag att öka rättssäkerheten i skatteförfarandet. I studiens avslutande delar redovisas en pro et contra-analys av förslagen med utgångspunkt i remissyttrandena, egna slutsatser avseende förslagen samt allmänna avslutande kommentarer. I dessa delar lämnas egna förbättringsförslag för att ytterligare öka rättssäkerheten, eftersom utredningen enligt min mening får anses bristfällig i flera avseenden.

Wie sollen Rechtssysteme auf Regeln reagieren, die Provider von Netzgemeinschaften wie Facebook oder World of Warcraft Nutzenden auferlegen? Das positive Recht gibt hierauf keine verlässliche Antwort. Erst ein Verständnis der Legitimität der Regeln ermöglicht ein Austarieren des Verhältnisses zwischen den Regelwerken von Netzgemeinschaften und Rechtssystemen. Nach Literaturstimmen sollen die Regeln durch außerrechtliche Mechanismen (z.B. direktdemokratische Verfahren), eine gerichtliche Kontrolle nach verfassungsrechtlichen Kriterien oder Zivilverfassungen legitimiert werden. Es ist aber zweifelhaft, ob Netzgemeinschaften legitime außerrechtliche Mechanismen schaffen können, ob sie wie Staaten behandelt werden sollten und ob Zivilverfassungen entstehen werden. Die Arbeit schlägt ein alternatives Modell vor: Im deutschen Zivilrecht zeichnet sich ein Legitimitätsmodell für private Regeln ab, das auf Regeln von Netzgemeinschaften anwendbar ist und als transnationale Schablone dienen kann. Danach werden die Regeln durch die Zustimmung und das Wohl der Nutzenden legitimiert. Letzteres gewährleistet ein Ausbeutungsschutz der Nutzenden in Form einer gerichtlichen Kontrolle. Die Anwendung des Modells führt zu folgenden Erkenntnissen: 1. Geschriebene Regeln sind schwach durch Zustimmung legitimiert. Eine gerichtliche Kontrolle nach vertragsrechtlichen Kriterien (bei Regelungen des Austauschverhältnisses zwischen Providern und Nutzenden) oder grundrechtlichen Kriterien (bei Verhaltensregeln) verleiht ihnen zusätzliche Legitimität. Die Kontrollintensität hängt von der Höhe des Ausbeutungsrisikos und der Existenz von legitimen außerrechtlichen Mechanismen ab. 2. Code-Regeln (z.B. Newsfeed- Algorithmen) sind auch nur schwach durch Zustimmung legitimiert. Gerichtliche Kontrollmöglichkeiten, die sie gegenüber Nutzenden legitimieren, müssen noch geschaffen werden. 3. Geschriebene und Code-Regeln sind illegitim gegenüber Nichtnutzenden, weil sie nicht auf deren Zustimmung beruhen. / How should legal systems respond to rules that virtual community providers such as Facebook or World of Warcraft impose on users? To answer this question, we must look beyond black letter law. Only an understanding of the legitimacy of these rules allows us to balance out their relationship with legal systems. Current scholarship theorizes their legitimacy as follows: Non-legal mechanisms (e.g. direct voting systems), judicial review according to constitutional principles, or digital civil constitutions may legitimize the rules. Yet, three points remain doubtful: whether virtual communities can develop legitimate self-governance mechanisms, whether they should be treated like states, and whether digital civil constitutions will effectively emerge. This work proposes an alternative legitimacy model: German private law reflects a legitimacy model for private rule-making applicable to rules of virtual communities which can serve as a transnational template. This model suggests that the rules can derive legitimacy from two sources: user consent and the common good of users, the latter ensured by judicial review protecting users against exploitation. This leads to the following key findings: 1. Written rules of virtual communities are weakly legitimized by user consent but derive additional legitimacy from judicial review. Contract law standard applies to rules that govern the bilateral exchange relationship between providers and users. General rules of conduct for users are checked against fundamental rights. The required intensity of review depends on the risk of user exploitation and the presence of legitimate self-governance mechanisms. 2. Rules embedded in computer code (e.g. newsfeed algorithms) are poorly legitimized by user consent. Judicial review procedures legitimizing them towards users still need to be established. 3. Both written rules and rules embedded in computer code are not legitimate towards non-users since non-users have not consented to them.

La réforme et l’harmonisation du droit des sûretés mobilières sont à l’ordre du jour de plusieurs organisations internationales, car il est admis qu’un régime de sûretés efficient favorise l’accès au crédit à de faibles coûts. L’harmonisation de ce droit comporte deux volets. D’une part, dans l’Occident industrialisé, les efforts d’harmonisation vont de la réforme des droits internes à l’établissement de régimes spéciaux relativement à des biens spécifiques (principalement les biens mobiles de grande valeur, tels les aéronefs, le matériel ferroviaire roulant et les satellites, et les biens incorporels, comprenant les créances, valeurs mobilières, actifs financiers et titres intermédiés). Ces efforts d’harmonisation démontrent que d’un point de vue systémique, malgré quelques différences notables, les régimes nord-américains et européens sont fondés sur des principes similaires et atteignent des résultats comparables. En résulte l’émergence d’un ordre juridique transnational en droit des sûretés mobilières, fondé sur les principes de la primauté de l’individu et la reconnaissance du droit de propriété de l’individu dans ses biens, mis en œuvre grâce à l’État de droit. D’autre part, les institutions financières internationales encouragent l’établissement de régimes de sûretés dans les pays en voie de développement qui obéissent aux mêmes critères que ceux de l’Occident, en insistant sur les réformes institutionnelles et juridiques visant l’établissement d’une bonne gouvernance et l’État de droit. Cependant, une transposition des régimes occidentaux ne peut se faire sans heurts dans les pays en voie de développement, notamment pour des raisons socio-culturelles et politiques. Lorsque les principes de la primauté de l’individu, de la propriété individuelle et de l’État de droit ne sont pas reconnus dans un pays donné, la réforme et l’harmonisation du droit des sûretés s’en trouvent compromis. La démonstration de l’état d’avancement de la réforme et de l’harmonisation du droit des sûretés dans les pays occidentaux industrialisés est faite grâce à une comparaison du Uniform Commercial Code, du Code civil du Québec, des Personal Property Security Acts des provinces canadiennes de common law, des principes des droits français et anglais, de l’influence du droit communautaire sur les pays membres de l’Union Européenne. Sont analysés, aussi, dans cette optique, les principaux instruments de l’harmonisation du droit émanant des organisations internationales. Par ailleurs, deux études de cas relatifs à la réforme du crédit foncier en Égypte et à la réforme de l’urbanisme et de l’habitat en République démocratique du Congo, viennent étayer les difficultés que rencontrent les institutions internationales, telles la Banque mondiale et l’ACDI, dans le cadre de projets de réformes visant la bonne gouvernance et l’instauration d’un véritable État de droit, en partie à cause d’un pluralisme des ordres juridiques de ces pays. / The reform and harmonization of secured transactions on movable (or personal) property is fostered by international organizations, on the assumption that an efficient regime of secured transactions will give access to affordable credit to a large number of persons and corporations. Such reform and harmonization process can be explained according to its two main features. Firstly, in Western and developped countries, the focus is on endeavours to harmonize the various regimes internally and to establish special regimes with respect to specific assets (for instance, high value mobile equipment, such as aircrafts, rolling stock or satellites, on the one hand, or incorporeal property, including securities, financial assets or security entitlements, on the other hand). Even though some differences remains from a systemic point of view, north american and european regimes are based on similar principles and achieve comparable results. It is therefore possible to see the emergence of a transnational legal order in the law of secured transactions, based on individuals and the enforcement of their rights of ownership, ascertained by the Rule of Law principle. Secondly, international financial institutions are encouraging the implementation of secured transactions regimes in developing countries along the same criteria as those used in Western developed countries, in the context of institutional and legal reforms under governance and rule of law projects. However, Western regimes must be adapted and customized before they are transplanted into a developing country. Indeed, for socio-cultural and political reasons, it is not possible to establish the same kind of regime therein. When individual rights and freedoms, including the right of ownership and the Rule of Law, are not recognized, the reform and harmonization of secured transactions is not likely to happen. The status of advancement of the reform and harmonization of secured transactions in the developed world is illustrated by a comparison between the Uniform Commercial Code, the Civil Code of Québec, the Personal Property Security Acts of canadian common law provinces, the applicable principles under both French and English Law, and the influence of European Law on its member states. An analysis of the main harmonization instruments proposed by international organizations is also conducted. Finally, the pitfalls of governance and rule of law reform projects are well described by two case studies. The first one deals with real estate and mortgage law reforms in Egypt, with a goal to encourage affordable access to housing; the second one is about urban planing and housing reforms in the Democratic Republic of Congo. The existence of a multiplicity of legal orders in these countries explains the difficulties encountered in such reform processes.

Après la chute de l’Union des Républiques Socialistes Soviétiques en décembre 1991, la Fédération de Russie affirme à maintes reprises son engagement à suivre un développement démocratique et à faire partie de « l’Europe sans frontières ». Pour atteindre cet objectif, elle adhère à toute une série de traités européens, entre autres, à la Convention européenne de sauvegarde des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales. Toutefois, malgré la volonté affichée par la Russie de faire partie du système européen de protection des droits fondamentaux, les problèmes de transition politique, institutionnelle et économique rendent cette tâche très difficile. Entre autres le fédéralisme, qu’on peut qualifier de « complexe », crée un système juridique très singulier dont certains éléments ne sont pas toujours compatibles avec les instruments internationaux en matière des droits de l’homme ratifiés par la Russie. L’objectif de ce travail est d’étudier les problèmes de la mise en œuvre de la Convention européenne de sauvegarde des droits de l’homme et des libertés fondamentales et des décisions de la Cour européenne des droits de l’homme en Fédération de Russie et leur possible influence sur le développement des instruments de protection des droits fondamentaux dans les conditions du système fédéral existant en Russie. / After the fall of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in December 1991, the Russian Federation stated repeatedly its commitment to democratic development and to be part of "Europe without borders". To achieve this goal it joins a number of European treaties, among others, the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. However, despite the willingness of Russia to be part of the European system of protection of fundamental rights, the problems of political transition, economic and institutional development make this task very difficult. Among other the federalism, which could be qualified as "complex", creates a very singular legal system. Some of its elements are not always compatible with international instruments on human rights protection ratified by Russia. The objective of this work is to study the problems of implementation of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms and the decisions of the European Court of Human Rights in the Russian Federation and their possible influence on the development of national instruments for the protection of fundamental rights under the Russian federal system.