Diese Dissertation umfasst vier Aufsätze welche die Effekte von nicht-zufälliger Selektion betrachten. Im ersten Aufsatz wird analysiert welche Rolle die geänderte Zusammensetzung der Erwerbsbevölkerung für die Entwicklung der Lohnungleichheit spielt. Vollzeit-Erwerbstätige weisen zunehmend Episoden von Teilzeitarbeit und Erwerbsunterbrechungen in ihren Biographien auf. Dies hat maßgeblich zum Anstieg der Lohnungleichheit beigetragen. Der zweite Aufsatz betrachtet die Effekte von gesunkener Arbeitslosigkeit auf Lohnungleichheit.. Wenn sich die Selektion in Vollzeit oder Arbeitslosigkeit ändert, kann dies zu steigender Lohnungleichheit führen. Dies ist insbesondere dann der Fall wenn Personen neu in Beschäftigung kommen, die eine Negativauswahl der Erwerbsbevölkerung sind. Jedoch zeigt sich, als Resultat einer Analyse mit selektionskorrigierten Quantilsregressionen, dass diese veränderte Selektion nicht zum Anstieg der Lohnungleichheit beigetragen hat. Im dritten Aufsatz geht es um nicht-monotone Selektion bei Regression Discontinuity Designs (RDD). Die Annahmen, auf welchen RDDs beruhen, können verletzt sein wenn sich sowohl Individuen in die Maßnahmengruppe hinein, als auch aus ihr heraus selektieren. Der Aufsatz beschreibt diesen Selektionsmechanismus und zeigt seine praktische Relevanz. Zudem wird ein Spezifikationstest vorgestellt um das Problem im Vorfeld der Analyse zu erkennen. Der vierte Aufsatz untersucht Wählerpräferenzen für das Geschlecht politischer Kandidaten. Es wird analysiert ob das Zusammenspiel von Berufsinformationen und Geschlecht die geringere Repräsentation von Frauen erklären kann. Dazu wurde ein Feldexperiment durchgeführt. Es zeigt sich dass weibliche Kandidaten einen Stimmvorteil genießen solange keine Berufsinformationen angegeben sind. Sobald jedoch die Berufe der Kandidaten bekannt sind kehrt sich dies in einen Stimmvorteil für männliche Kandidaten um. / This thesis comprises four essays which study effects of non-random selection. The first essay analyzes the role of changes in labor force composition for the development of wage inequality among full-time workers. Of particular interest are the effects of increasingly common episodes of temporary part-time work and nonemployment among full-time workers. Such episodes, have contributed substantially to the rise in wage inequality. The second essay studies the effects of declining unemployment on inequality of wages. Changing selection over time between unemployment and full-time work could lead to increasingly diverse wages, particularly if sinking unemployment implies an influx of negatively selected workers into employment. However, results from a selection corrected quantile regression approach show that changing selection with respect to unobservables is not a contributor to the rise in wage inequality. The third essay studies non-monotonic selection in regression discontinuity designs (RDD). When similar numbers of individual select into and out of treatment simultaneously, the identifying assumption of the RDD can be violated. The essay describes the selection mechanisms and demonstrates it’s practical relevance. It then suggests an enhancement to the standard specification tests for RDDs, which can detect non-monotonic sorting in advance. The fourth essay studies voter’s valuation of candidate gender. It examines whether the presence of profession information coupled with voter preferences for stereotypical male occupations may explain part of the gender gap in parliaments. The analysis is conducted as a field experiment built into an exit-poll of voters in Germany in 2014. The results show a vote share bonus for women in the absence of profession information. Once voters know the profession of candidates, however, this changes towards a small edge for male candidates.

The proportion of women editors on the English language Wikipedia has for years been known to be very low. The purpose of this thesis is to see if this gender gap exists on the Swedish language Wikipedia as well, and investigate the reasons behind it. To do this, three methods are used. Firstly a literature review is conducted, looking at women in computing and how Wikipedia works and how it was founded. Secondly, user behavior and activity-levels are measured through means of a database analysis of editors and edits. And thirdly, a survey is distributed, aimed at both readers and editors of Swedish Wikipedia, gathering some 2700 respondents. The results indicate that there is indeed a big disproportion, and that only between 13-19% of editors are women. The findings did not indicate readers of the encyclopedia having any strong negative preconceptions about Wikipedia or its community. However when looking at reasons for not contributing, women were significantly more likely to perceive themselves as not competent enough to edit. Computer skills were found to be an important factor for trying out editing in the first place, and Wikipedia’s connection to a male-dominated computing/programming culture is put forth as a reason for the resilience of the gender gap. The difference in men’s and women’s communication styles in relation to the climate Wikipedia’s policies and guidelines is also discussed. / Andelen kvinnor som redigerar engelskspråkiga Wikipedia har visats vara väldigt låg. Syftet med detta arbetet är att undersöka om andelen ser likadan ut på den Svenskspråkiga siten också, samt undersöka de bakomliggande orsakerna. För att göra detta används tre metoder. Först görs en literaturstudie som behandlar kvinnor inom programmering och hur Wikipedia fungerar och dess grundande. Därefter mäts användarbeteende och aktivitetsnivåer genom en databasanalys på redigerare och redigeringar. slutligen distribuerades en webb-enkät riktad till både läsare och redigerare av svenskspråkiga Wikipedia, med runt 2700 svaranden. Resultaten visar att det finns en stor snedfördelning och att endast mellan 13-19% av redigerare är kvinnor. Resultaten påvisar inte några särskilda negativa uppfattningar hos läsare om Wikipedia eller dess gemenskap. Däremot uppgav kvinnor i signifikant högre utsträckning att en viktig anledning till att de inte bidrog till encyklopedin var att de inte upplevde sig tillräckligt kompetenta. Datorvana fanns vara en viktig faktor till att testa på att redigera första gången, och Wikipedias koppling till en mans-dominerad programmeringskultur diskuteras som en faktor till den låga andelen kvinnor. Wikipedias policies och riktlinjer och dess sammankoppling med skillnader i män och kvinnors kommunikationsstilar på internet diskuteras även.

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The purpose of this study is to present how female entrepreneurs in Sweden raise capital for their start-ups and if there are common key factors presented among those who succeed. The entrepreneurs interviewed have all successfully raised capital. The research shows that female founders only have access to 1% or less of the capital in Sweden. We interview investors to acquire their perception of gender bias in fundraising and the key factors they look for during their due diligence process. The study shows that female entrepreneurs prefer bootstrapping and soft fundings before approaching investors. The majority of the female entrepreneurs were unsecure or did not know if they have been exposed to gender bias from investors during their fundraising process because they succeeded raising capital. They were at the same time aware of the existing gender bias. The majority of the investors expressed that they preferred to invest in female or mixed funded companies because their experience shows that those tend to perform better. The study also shows that key factors during the fundraising process are diversity of the team, resilience, networking, building good relations and that the entrepreneurs appears to be coachable from the investors point of view.

There is a massive gender gap in the tech startup industry. 1% of the CTOs at venture-backed companies in Europe are women and only 1% of the venture capital in Sweden is given to all-female founding teams. The author believes that gender equality should improve because of the fundamental right to have equal opportunities, but also because it could benefit the industry. Research indicates that gender equality, for example, can lead to increased profitability. This thesis is a qualitative study aiming to understand the effects of the industry gender gap by investigating how women in the industry perceive gender inequality. The study will answer to what extent gender equality is seen as a problem, what barriers female tech entrepreneurs face and present some explanations for the gender gap. The foundation for the results and discussion sections is a literature review on entrepreneurship and gender and semi-structured qualitative interviews. The interviews were carried out with women who had worked in the tech startup industry in Stockholm. A total of 12 respondents with various professions and degrees of technical skills were interviewed. They worked or had worked as founders, investors or at incubators. Throughout the analysis, two distinct views on the extent of the problem were identified. Some women perceived the gender gap as mainly unproblematic and their gender as beneficial yet insignificant. These respondents have been labeled the Positive Gender Neutral (PGN) group. They stated that their gender was more advantageous than impeding. Being a minority makes one stand out, which can be beneficial. The other group of respondents raised that this visibility can be both advantageous and tiring. This group has been labeled the Structure Acknowledging (SA) group. They expressed that there are layers of gender inequality in addition to the gender discrepancy. They stated that there are significant barriers to female entrepreneurs and wished to decrease gender inequality. Both groups expressed that there are certain barriers to women, although the PGN group tended to view the barriers as relating to individual women and the SA group to structures in the industry and society. Some expressed that women have internal barriers such as a lack of confidence and unwillingness to take risk. Some structural barriers expressed were the male entrepreneurial norm and male domination of the industry, including a ”bro culture” and homosociality. The two distinct views on gender inequality can be seen as coping strategies for succeeding in a male-dominated environment. That could be an indication that there is a strong male norm in the industry. Many raised rhetoric such as master suppression techniques or excluding entrepreneurial language as barriers. The respondents furthermore also often explained the gender gap with women being attracted to other industries or lacked tech entrepreneur role models. Finally, comparing the results to previous research, all respondents have a high gender awareness level, in particular, the respondents in the SA group. Gender awareness can lead to change. Thus, hopefully, there is a positive trend of gender awareness in the industry, which this thesis hopes to contribute to. / Det finns ett stort könsgap i tech startup-industrin. 1% av CTOs på företag backade av riskkapital i Europa är kvinnor och endast 1% av riskkapitalet i Sverige ges till helt kvinnliga grundarteam. Författaren anser att jämställdheten bör förbättras dels på grund av den grundläggande rättigheten att ha lika möjligheter, dels för att det kan gynna industrin. Forskning tyder på att jämställdhet till exempel kan leda till ökad lönsamhet. Denna avhandling är en kvalitativ studie som syftar till att förstå effekterna av industrins könsdiskrepans genom att undersöka hur kvinnor i branschen upplever ojämställdhet. Studien ämnar besvara till vilken utsträckning jämställdhet ses som ett problem, vilka hinder som kvinnliga teknikföretagare står inför och presenterar några förklaringar för könsskillnaden. Grunden för resultaten och diskussionen är en litteraturstudie om entreprenörskap och kön samt halvstrukturerade kvalitativa intervjuer. Intervjuerna genomfördes med kvinnor som arbetat i tech startup-industrin i Stockholm. Sammanlagt tolv respondenter med olika yrken och grader av tekniska färdigheter intervjuades. De arbetade eller hade arbetat som grundare, investerare eller på inkubatorer. I analysen identifierades två olika synsätt på problemets omfattning. Vissa kvinnor upplevde könsskillnaden som huvudsakligen oproblematisk och deras kön som fördelaktigt men likväl obetydligt. Dessa respondenter har benämnts den positiva könsneutrala gruppen (PGN). Att vara en minoritet gör att man sticker ut, vilket kan vara fördelaktigt. Den andra gruppen av svarande hävdade att denna synlighet kan vara både fördelaktig och tröttsam. Denna grupp har benämnts den strukturerkännande gruppen (SA). De uttryckte att det finns ojämställdhet utöver könsgapet. De uppgav att det finns betydande hinder för kvinnliga entreprenörer och att de ville minska könens ojämlikhet. Båda grupperna gav uttryck för att det finns vissa hinder för kvinnor, även om PGN-gruppen tenderade att se hindren i relation till andra kvinnor medan SA-gruppen nämnde samhälleliga strukturer. Några uttryckte att kvinnor har interna hinder som brist på självförtroende och ovillighet att ta risk. Några strukturella hinder som uttrycktes var den manliga entreprenörsnormen och den manliga dominansen i branschen, inklusive en "grabbig” kultur och homosocialitet. De två distinkta föreställningarna om jämställdhet mellan könen kan ses som strategier för att lyckas i en manligt dominerad miljö, vilket kan kopplas till att det finns en stark manlig norm i branschen. Andra hinder som lyftes var härskartekniker, manligt entreprenörsspråk och brist på förebilder. Slutligen visar en jämförelse av resultaten med tidigare forskning att respondenterna har en hög könsmedvetenhetsnivå, i synnerhet SA-gruppen. Könsmedvetenhet kan leda till förändring. Således finns det förhoppningsvis en positiv utveckling av könsmedvetenhet inom branschen, som denna avhandling hoppas bidra till.

[pt] A desigualdade salarial de gênero tem sido amplamente estudada e há muitas explicações. Há evidências crescentes de que as empresas desempenham um papel importante na explicação dessa desigualdade. Neste artigo, utilizo um ambiente único onde firmas sofrem choques de demanda exógenos, a fim de identificar se há evidência de rent-sharing pelas empresas e se o efeito difere entre trabalhadores homens e mulheres. Controlando pela qualidade dos trabalhadores, encontro que um aumento no valor do choque de demanda não leva a aumentos salariais. Os choques de demanda não afetam os salários de homens nem de mulheres e portanto, tampouco afeta a desigualdade salarial de gênero. Além disso, uso um novo conjunto de dados que contém informações sobre o gênero do dono da empresa e examino se as empresas lideradas por mulheres e por homens se comportam de maneira diferente em relação a seus empregados. Não encontro nenhuma evidência de que firmas lideradas por homens ou mulheres diferem com relação a rent-sharing. / [en] Gender wage inequality has been widely studied and many explanations have been advanced in the literature. There is growing evidence that firms play an important role in explaining this inequality. In this paper, I make use of a unique setting with exogenous demand shocks to firms to identify if there is evidence of rent-sharing by firms and whether it differs between male and female workers. Controlling for worker quality, I find that increases in the value of the demand shock per worker do not lead to increases in wages. Demand shocks do not have effects on neither male nor female wages. Furthermore, I use a new dataset containing information on gender of firm s owner and I examine if female and male-led firms behave differently towards their employees. I find no evidence of differential rent-sharing through the structure of the firms ownership.

Denna studie ämnar sammanställa resultat från de internationella jämförelser av elevers läsförståelsekunskaper som Sverige deltagit i, med särskilt fokus på svenska pojkars prestationer i dessa undersökningar. Studiens syfte är att undersöka vilka trender som går att skönja i pojkars läsning, och analysera hur skillnader mellan svenska pojkar och flickors läsning ter sig över tid. En överblick ges dessutom av svenska pojkar och flickors samlade resultat i läsförståelsestudier. Totalt har material från tio internationella studier insamlats och analyserats. Data har hämtats främst från de Skolverket-rapporter som författats efter varje undersökning. I resultatanalysen påvisas bland annat att svenska pojkar såväl som flickor försämrat sina läsförmågor signifikant sedan första undersökningen 1970. Dessutom har könsskillnaden vuxit och i den senaste undersökningen, 2012, registrerade svenska elever rekordhöga könsskillnader i läsförmåga, en skillnad som till stor del kan attribueras till pojkars kraftigt försämrade läsförmågor. Vidare så framkom det i analysen att svenska pojkars såväl som flickors läsattityder har försämrats det senaste decenniet. Denna trend var emellertid tydligast bland pojkar. / This study aims to compile results from international surveys of students’ reading competence that Sweden has participated in, with particular focus on the results of Swedish boys. The purpose of the study is to reveal trends in boys’ reading, and analyse how differences between Swedish boys and girls’ reading has developed over time. The paper also offers an overview of Swedish boys and girls’ general performances throughout all surveys. In total, material from ten major international surveys has been analysed. Foremost, data has been collected from the survey reports written by the Swedish National Agency for Education. In analysing the material it was found, among other things, that Swedish boys as well as girls significantly have worsened their reading competence since the first survey in 1970. Furthermore, the gender differences in reading have increased considerably, and in the latest survey, PISA 2012, Swedish students registered historically high gender differences, a circumstance that largely could be attributed to the deteriorating results of Swedish boys. In addition, it became apparent that Swedish students’ reading attitudes have worsened the last decade, a trend particularly salient among boys.

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