Diese Forschung hat das Ziel die Praxis der Inklusion im Alltag des Unterrichts und der Schule zu erkennen, begründet mit den deutschen pädagogischen Prinzipien der Inklusion, und die Unterrichtspraxis der Lehrer, die mit Schülern besonderen Lernbedüfnisse im Unterricht eines regelmässigen Lernprozesses umgehen, zu analysieren. Der theoretische Bezugspunkt beruht auf den “Pädagogischen Prinzipien der Inklusion” von Hans Wocken (2003), Andréas Hinz und Inês Boban (2005), die einen geschichtlichen Rückblick auf die Bewegung der schulischen Integration und Einschluss und einige individuelle Experimente in der Schulpraxis in Europa gestalten, und auch eine Analyse der Praxis der Inklusion im schulischen Alltag und im Unterricht, ausgegangen von dem individuellen Lehr- Lernprozess und im Bi- Dozenten-System. Die empirische Untersuchung wendet sich an neun Lehrer der fünften bis zur achten Klasse einer regelmässigen Schule. Durch Interwiews, pädagogische Sitzungen und Erfahrungsaustausch versucht sie eine Inhaltsanalyse zu gestalten in einer Perspektive drei gestellte Ziele: (1) Schüler mit besonderen Lernbedürfnissen: man erfährt wie umfangreich dieser Ausdruck ist; (2) Das Entgegenkommen der Schüler im Unterricht: man untersucht die konkrete Auswirkung in der Didaktik, in der Evaluation, im Bi-Dozenten- System und in der Reduzierung der Schülerzahl im Klassenraum. Davon ausgehend, adaptiert man den Lehrplan, gestaltet den Unterricht verschieden und setzt einen zweiten Dozenten als Hilfskraft ein; (3) Die Überlegung über die tägliche Alltagspraxis: die Arbeitsverhältnisse, Vorteile, Schwierigkeiten und Bildungserwartungen, indem man die Erlebnisse und die Gefühle der Lehrer in ihrer Arbeitserwartungen gegenüber der Schüler und der Schule schildert. Unser Vorschlag ist, die Praxis der Inklusion sollte ein Prinzip jeder Schule und nicht nur Initiative einiger Menschen sein; damit man allen Schülern entgegenkommt und nicht nur ein Teil, ist die Gruppenarbeit sehr wichtig; die räumliche und die materielle Anpassung und Ausstattung der Schule, sowie einen geeigneten Lehrplan sind nötig, damit die Entwicklung aller Schüler in den verschiedenen Bereichen der Kenntnis geboten und ermöglicht wird. / A pesquisa tem como objetivos reconhecer práticas inclusivas no dia-a-dia da sala de aula e da escola, baseadas nos princípios pedagógicos inclusivos alemães, e analisar as práticas educativas dos professores que atuam junto a alunos com necessidades educacionais especiais na sala de aula do ensino regular. O referencial teórico assenta-se nos princípios pedagógicos inclusivos dos educadores alemães Hans Wocken (2003), Andréas Hinz e Inês Boban (2005), incluindo uma retrospectiva histórica do movimento de integração/inclusão escolar e algumas práticas individualizadas de ensino no cenário europeu, além de uma análise de práticas inclusivas no cotidiano da sala de aula e da escola a partir da individualização do ensino e do sistema de bidocência. A investigação empírica volta-se para o trabalho desenvolvido por nove professores do Ensino Fundamental, nas séries de 5ª a 8ª, de uma escola regular. Através de entrevistas, reuniões de estudo, observações de aula, entrevistas semi-estruturadas e testemunhos, procura fazer uma análise de conteúdo, na perspectiva de três eixos norteadores: (1) alunos com necessidades educacionais especiais, em que se analisa a dimensão da nomenclatura, ou seja, o que é para o professor um aluno com necessidade educacional especial e qual a importância do diagnóstico no seu trabalho em sala de aula; (2) atendimento aos alunos em sala de aula, em que se examinam as dimensões de individualização dos alvos, da didática, da avaliação, o sistema de bidocência e a redução numérica, evidenciando um currículo com possibilidade de adaptações, práticas diferenciadas em sala de aula e trabalho do professor de apoio; e (3) reflexão sobre a prática cotidiana, relativamente a condições de trabalho, benefícios, dificuldades e expectativas educacionais, em que se buscam retratar as vivências e os sentimentos dos professores no trabalho e suas expectativas em relação aos alunos e à escola. Conclui-se propondo algumas considerações, como, por exemplo, a práxis da inclusão como um princípio de toda escola e não somente de algumas pessoas; a importância do trabalho em equipe, a fim de que se possam atender todos os alunos e não somente uma parcela; a adaptação da escola tanto em recursos físicos e materiais, como em atendimento curricular, oferecendo um conjunto de situações que favoreçam o desenvolvimento de todos os alunos nas diferentes áreas do conhecimento. / This study aims at spotting daily inclusive practices in the school and in the classroom, based on German inclusive pedagogical principles, as well as analyzing educative practices of teachers who work with students with special educational needs in the classroom of regular schools. Concerning its theoretical reference, it is based on the inclusive pedagogical principles of the German educators Hans Wocken (2003), Andréas Hinz and Inês Boban (2005), including a historical review of the school integration/inclusion movement and some individualized teaching practices in the European setting, as well as an analysis of inclusive practices in the classroom and school routines from the perspective of teaching individualization and bi-instruction system. The empiric investigation approached the work developed by nine teachers of Primary School, from 5th to 8th grade in a regular school. Through interviews, study meetings, classroom observation, semi-structured interviews and testimonials, it attempts to analyze content from the perspective of three guiding axes: (1) students with special educational needs, in which it is analyzed the dimension of nomenclature, i.e., what it means for a teacher a student with special educational needs and how important is the diagnosis in his/her classroom work; (2) assistance to students in the classroom, in which it is examined the dimensions of individualization of targets, didactic, assessment, bi-instruction system and numeric reduction, focusing on a syllabus with possibilities for adaptations, differentiated practices in classroom and supporting teacher’s work; and (3) reflections on daily practice, concerning educational working conditions, benefits, difficulties and expectations, in which it was attempted to portrait the experiences and the feelings of teachers in their work and their expectations regarding students and school. As a conclusion, some considerations are proposed, such as the inclusion praxis as a principle of every school, and not only of some people; the importance of team work, in order to assist all students, and not only a part of them; adaptation of the school both in material and physical resources and syllabus assistance, offering a setting that favors the development of all students in the various areas of knowledge.

Text in Afrikaans / Hierdie verhandeling is 'n poging om 'n teoretiese-prinsipiele uiteensetting te gee omtrent voorvonnisevaluering vanuit 'n penologiese gesigspunt. Met voorvonnisevalueringsverslae word daar gepoog om op 'n sinlike manier beide positiewe en negatiewe elemente van die individuele oortreder se persoonlike- en maatskaplike agtergrond en huidige situasie aan die lig te bring naamlik kenmerke van sy gedragspatrone sowel van sy sterk en swak eienskappe. Die hoofdoel van voorvonnisevalueringsverslae en voorvonnisondersoeke is om regters, landdroste en howe behulpsaam te wees met die bepaling van 'n gepaste en ge"individualiseerde straf. Sonder basiese en deeglike kennis van die oortreder as persoon sal enige verhoorhof in die duister 'n vonnis ople en die kanse vir 'n gepaste straf sal skraal wees. Benewens die wesenlike groei en belangstelling in voorvonnisevelueringsverslae wat deur proefbeamptes of korrektiewe beamptes voorberei word pleit verskeie skrywers vir die gebruikmaking van hierdie evalueringsverslae in die strafregsplegingstelsel veral wat betref jeugdiges, eerste oortreders en ernstige oortreders. / The dissertation will attempt a theoretic fundamental exposition of the role of the presentence evaluation as seen from a penological perspective. With presentence evaluation they attempt to take into consideration the positive as well as the negative elements which are present in the individual's personal and social background for example their day-to-day behaviour. The main purpose of the presentence evaluation report and presentence investigation is to aid the judges, prosecutors and the court in determining a suitable and individualized punishment. Without basic and complete knowledge of the offender as a person the court will not be able to deliver fair judgements and the changes that a suitable punishment will be given is limited. Due to a positive interest in this presentence evaluation report several writers insist of making use of this evaluation report in the criminal law justice system especially where youth, first time offenders and major offenders are concerned. / Penology / M.A. (Penologie)

This essay aims to research how the discussion within the two big teacher unions in Sweden has looked in three different issues. The researched issues are the question of individual and differentiated wages, the question of teacher certification and the question of career opportunities for teachers. Previous research has shown that the teacher profession has been individualized in some aspects, and through an idea analysis I investigate how this is shown in the discussion within the unions. From my material – protocols from four different congresses – I draw the conclusion that the idea of individualisation is strong from the union boards and more mixed from the members. The question of individual and differentiated wages is the issue with the biggest spread of ideas and opinions in the union discussion, while the question of teacher certification is the closest to consensus.

Diese Forschung hat das Ziel die Praxis der Inklusion im Alltag des Unterrichts und der Schule zu erkennen, begründet mit den deutschen pädagogischen Prinzipien der Inklusion, und die Unterrichtspraxis der Lehrer, die mit Schülern besonderen Lernbedüfnisse im Unterricht eines regelmässigen Lernprozesses umgehen, zu analysieren. Der theoretische Bezugspunkt beruht auf den “Pädagogischen Prinzipien der Inklusion” von Hans Wocken (2003), Andréas Hinz und Inês Boban (2005), die einen geschichtlichen Rückblick auf die Bewegung der schulischen Integration und Einschluss und einige individuelle Experimente in der Schulpraxis in Europa gestalten, und auch eine Analyse der Praxis der Inklusion im schulischen Alltag und im Unterricht, ausgegangen von dem individuellen Lehr- Lernprozess und im Bi- Dozenten-System. Die empirische Untersuchung wendet sich an neun Lehrer der fünften bis zur achten Klasse einer regelmässigen Schule. Durch Interwiews, pädagogische Sitzungen und Erfahrungsaustausch versucht sie eine Inhaltsanalyse zu gestalten in einer Perspektive drei gestellte Ziele: (1) Schüler mit besonderen Lernbedürfnissen: man erfährt wie umfangreich dieser Ausdruck ist; (2) Das Entgegenkommen der Schüler im Unterricht: man untersucht die konkrete Auswirkung in der Didaktik, in der Evaluation, im Bi-Dozenten- System und in der Reduzierung der Schülerzahl im Klassenraum. Davon ausgehend, adaptiert man den Lehrplan, gestaltet den Unterricht verschieden und setzt einen zweiten Dozenten als Hilfskraft ein; (3) Die Überlegung über die tägliche Alltagspraxis: die Arbeitsverhältnisse, Vorteile, Schwierigkeiten und Bildungserwartungen, indem man die Erlebnisse und die Gefühle der Lehrer in ihrer Arbeitserwartungen gegenüber der Schüler und der Schule schildert. Unser Vorschlag ist, die Praxis der Inklusion sollte ein Prinzip jeder Schule und nicht nur Initiative einiger Menschen sein; damit man allen Schülern entgegenkommt und nicht nur ein Teil, ist die Gruppenarbeit sehr wichtig; die räumliche und die materielle Anpassung und Ausstattung der Schule, sowie einen geeigneten Lehrplan sind nötig, damit die Entwicklung aller Schüler in den verschiedenen Bereichen der Kenntnis geboten und ermöglicht wird. / A pesquisa tem como objetivos reconhecer práticas inclusivas no dia-a-dia da sala de aula e da escola, baseadas nos princípios pedagógicos inclusivos alemães, e analisar as práticas educativas dos professores que atuam junto a alunos com necessidades educacionais especiais na sala de aula do ensino regular. O referencial teórico assenta-se nos princípios pedagógicos inclusivos dos educadores alemães Hans Wocken (2003), Andréas Hinz e Inês Boban (2005), incluindo uma retrospectiva histórica do movimento de integração/inclusão escolar e algumas práticas individualizadas de ensino no cenário europeu, além de uma análise de práticas inclusivas no cotidiano da sala de aula e da escola a partir da individualização do ensino e do sistema de bidocência. A investigação empírica volta-se para o trabalho desenvolvido por nove professores do Ensino Fundamental, nas séries de 5ª a 8ª, de uma escola regular. Através de entrevistas, reuniões de estudo, observações de aula, entrevistas semi-estruturadas e testemunhos, procura fazer uma análise de conteúdo, na perspectiva de três eixos norteadores: (1) alunos com necessidades educacionais especiais, em que se analisa a dimensão da nomenclatura, ou seja, o que é para o professor um aluno com necessidade educacional especial e qual a importância do diagnóstico no seu trabalho em sala de aula; (2) atendimento aos alunos em sala de aula, em que se examinam as dimensões de individualização dos alvos, da didática, da avaliação, o sistema de bidocência e a redução numérica, evidenciando um currículo com possibilidade de adaptações, práticas diferenciadas em sala de aula e trabalho do professor de apoio; e (3) reflexão sobre a prática cotidiana, relativamente a condições de trabalho, benefícios, dificuldades e expectativas educacionais, em que se buscam retratar as vivências e os sentimentos dos professores no trabalho e suas expectativas em relação aos alunos e à escola. Conclui-se propondo algumas considerações, como, por exemplo, a práxis da inclusão como um princípio de toda escola e não somente de algumas pessoas; a importância do trabalho em equipe, a fim de que se possam atender todos os alunos e não somente uma parcela; a adaptação da escola tanto em recursos físicos e materiais, como em atendimento curricular, oferecendo um conjunto de situações que favoreçam o desenvolvimento de todos os alunos nas diferentes áreas do conhecimento. / This study aims at spotting daily inclusive practices in the school and in the classroom, based on German inclusive pedagogical principles, as well as analyzing educative practices of teachers who work with students with special educational needs in the classroom of regular schools. Concerning its theoretical reference, it is based on the inclusive pedagogical principles of the German educators Hans Wocken (2003), Andréas Hinz and Inês Boban (2005), including a historical review of the school integration/inclusion movement and some individualized teaching practices in the European setting, as well as an analysis of inclusive practices in the classroom and school routines from the perspective of teaching individualization and bi-instruction system. The empiric investigation approached the work developed by nine teachers of Primary School, from 5th to 8th grade in a regular school. Through interviews, study meetings, classroom observation, semi-structured interviews and testimonials, it attempts to analyze content from the perspective of three guiding axes: (1) students with special educational needs, in which it is analyzed the dimension of nomenclature, i.e., what it means for a teacher a student with special educational needs and how important is the diagnosis in his/her classroom work; (2) assistance to students in the classroom, in which it is examined the dimensions of individualization of targets, didactic, assessment, bi-instruction system and numeric reduction, focusing on a syllabus with possibilities for adaptations, differentiated practices in classroom and supporting teacher’s work; and (3) reflections on daily practice, concerning educational working conditions, benefits, difficulties and expectations, in which it was attempted to portrait the experiences and the feelings of teachers in their work and their expectations regarding students and school. As a conclusion, some considerations are proposed, such as the inclusion praxis as a principle of every school, and not only of some people; the importance of team work, in order to assist all students, and not only a part of them; adaptation of the school both in material and physical resources and syllabus assistance, offering a setting that favors the development of all students in the various areas of knowledge.

No description available.

This master thesis aims to introduce and describe effective strategies and teaching methods that teachers of gifted pupils with ADHD use and during which the different educational needs of these learners are taken into consideration. This thesis also presents how faculty primary school teachers apply these strategies and teaching methods in integrated and segregated forms of education focused on gifted pupils with ADHD. The theoretical part of this thesis summarizes findings about the issues of differentiation, individualization, talent and teaching strategies of gifted pupils. It also deals with a specific group of gifted pupils with ADHD which are classified as twice-exceptional learners. Therefore, there are also described the recommended strategies for the education of pupils with ADHD. Based on the study of Czech and foreign literature, this thesis delimits strategies and teaching methods which are suitable for gifted pupils with ADHD. The practical part of the thesis is a qualitative research done by analysing the observed lessons in classes with gifted pupils with ADHD, and subsequent in-depth interviews with the teachers of these pupils who teach in an integrated and segregated forms of teaching. This thesis tries to find out what strategies and teaching methods these teachers choose during...

Diese Forschung hat das Ziel die Praxis der Inklusion im Alltag des Unterrichts und der Schule zu erkennen, begründet mit den deutschen pädagogischen Prinzipien der Inklusion, und die Unterrichtspraxis der Lehrer, die mit Schülern besonderen Lernbedüfnisse im Unterricht eines regelmässigen Lernprozesses umgehen, zu analysieren. Der theoretische Bezugspunkt beruht auf den “Pädagogischen Prinzipien der Inklusion” von Hans Wocken (2003), Andréas Hinz und Inês Boban (2005), die einen geschichtlichen Rückblick auf die Bewegung der schulischen Integration und Einschluss und einige individuelle Experimente in der Schulpraxis in Europa gestalten, und auch eine Analyse der Praxis der Inklusion im schulischen Alltag und im Unterricht, ausgegangen von dem individuellen Lehr- Lernprozess und im Bi- Dozenten-System. Die empirische Untersuchung wendet sich an neun Lehrer der fünften bis zur achten Klasse einer regelmässigen Schule. Durch Interwiews, pädagogische Sitzungen und Erfahrungsaustausch versucht sie eine Inhaltsanalyse zu gestalten in einer Perspektive drei gestellte Ziele: (1) Schüler mit besonderen Lernbedürfnissen: man erfährt wie umfangreich dieser Ausdruck ist; (2) Das Entgegenkommen der Schüler im Unterricht: man untersucht die konkrete Auswirkung in der Didaktik, in der Evaluation, im Bi-Dozenten- System und in der Reduzierung der Schülerzahl im Klassenraum. Davon ausgehend, adaptiert man den Lehrplan, gestaltet den Unterricht verschieden und setzt einen zweiten Dozenten als Hilfskraft ein; (3) Die Überlegung über die tägliche Alltagspraxis: die Arbeitsverhältnisse, Vorteile, Schwierigkeiten und Bildungserwartungen, indem man die Erlebnisse und die Gefühle der Lehrer in ihrer Arbeitserwartungen gegenüber der Schüler und der Schule schildert. Unser Vorschlag ist, die Praxis der Inklusion sollte ein Prinzip jeder Schule und nicht nur Initiative einiger Menschen sein; damit man allen Schülern entgegenkommt und nicht nur ein Teil, ist die Gruppenarbeit sehr wichtig; die räumliche und die materielle Anpassung und Ausstattung der Schule, sowie einen geeigneten Lehrplan sind nötig, damit die Entwicklung aller Schüler in den verschiedenen Bereichen der Kenntnis geboten und ermöglicht wird. / A pesquisa tem como objetivos reconhecer práticas inclusivas no dia-a-dia da sala de aula e da escola, baseadas nos princípios pedagógicos inclusivos alemães, e analisar as práticas educativas dos professores que atuam junto a alunos com necessidades educacionais especiais na sala de aula do ensino regular. O referencial teórico assenta-se nos princípios pedagógicos inclusivos dos educadores alemães Hans Wocken (2003), Andréas Hinz e Inês Boban (2005), incluindo uma retrospectiva histórica do movimento de integração/inclusão escolar e algumas práticas individualizadas de ensino no cenário europeu, além de uma análise de práticas inclusivas no cotidiano da sala de aula e da escola a partir da individualização do ensino e do sistema de bidocência. A investigação empírica volta-se para o trabalho desenvolvido por nove professores do Ensino Fundamental, nas séries de 5ª a 8ª, de uma escola regular. Através de entrevistas, reuniões de estudo, observações de aula, entrevistas semi-estruturadas e testemunhos, procura fazer uma análise de conteúdo, na perspectiva de três eixos norteadores: (1) alunos com necessidades educacionais especiais, em que se analisa a dimensão da nomenclatura, ou seja, o que é para o professor um aluno com necessidade educacional especial e qual a importância do diagnóstico no seu trabalho em sala de aula; (2) atendimento aos alunos em sala de aula, em que se examinam as dimensões de individualização dos alvos, da didática, da avaliação, o sistema de bidocência e a redução numérica, evidenciando um currículo com possibilidade de adaptações, práticas diferenciadas em sala de aula e trabalho do professor de apoio; e (3) reflexão sobre a prática cotidiana, relativamente a condições de trabalho, benefícios, dificuldades e expectativas educacionais, em que se buscam retratar as vivências e os sentimentos dos professores no trabalho e suas expectativas em relação aos alunos e à escola. Conclui-se propondo algumas considerações, como, por exemplo, a práxis da inclusão como um princípio de toda escola e não somente de algumas pessoas; a importância do trabalho em equipe, a fim de que se possam atender todos os alunos e não somente uma parcela; a adaptação da escola tanto em recursos físicos e materiais, como em atendimento curricular, oferecendo um conjunto de situações que favoreçam o desenvolvimento de todos os alunos nas diferentes áreas do conhecimento. / This study aims at spotting daily inclusive practices in the school and in the classroom, based on German inclusive pedagogical principles, as well as analyzing educative practices of teachers who work with students with special educational needs in the classroom of regular schools. Concerning its theoretical reference, it is based on the inclusive pedagogical principles of the German educators Hans Wocken (2003), Andréas Hinz and Inês Boban (2005), including a historical review of the school integration/inclusion movement and some individualized teaching practices in the European setting, as well as an analysis of inclusive practices in the classroom and school routines from the perspective of teaching individualization and bi-instruction system. The empiric investigation approached the work developed by nine teachers of Primary School, from 5th to 8th grade in a regular school. Through interviews, study meetings, classroom observation, semi-structured interviews and testimonials, it attempts to analyze content from the perspective of three guiding axes: (1) students with special educational needs, in which it is analyzed the dimension of nomenclature, i.e., what it means for a teacher a student with special educational needs and how important is the diagnosis in his/her classroom work; (2) assistance to students in the classroom, in which it is examined the dimensions of individualization of targets, didactic, assessment, bi-instruction system and numeric reduction, focusing on a syllabus with possibilities for adaptations, differentiated practices in classroom and supporting teacher’s work; and (3) reflections on daily practice, concerning educational working conditions, benefits, difficulties and expectations, in which it was attempted to portrait the experiences and the feelings of teachers in their work and their expectations regarding students and school. As a conclusion, some considerations are proposed, such as the inclusion praxis as a principle of every school, and not only of some people; the importance of team work, in order to assist all students, and not only a part of them; adaptation of the school both in material and physical resources and syllabus assistance, offering a setting that favors the development of all students in the various areas of knowledge.

Au carrefour du droit du travail, du droit civil et du droit des sociétés siège la notion de rémunération. À l’image du contrat de travail, la rémunération peut se métamorphoser pour devenir un outil d’association financière des salariés à la performance de l’entreprise. L’association financière des salariés aux performances de l’entreprise ne présente pas un visage unique. Elle déploie d’abord ses effets dans le périmètre du Code du travail : l’individuel et le collectif se rejoignent pour dessiner une première forme d’association. Salaire et épargne salariale constituent les fruits du contrat de travail exécuté sous la seule bannière de la qualité de salarié. Celle-ci constitue l’élément primaire de l’association financière. L’actionnariat salarié emporte, en revanche, une double qualité : à celle de salarié s’ajoute celle d’associé. L’association financière devient alors parfaite. / At the crossroads between civil law and corporate law lies the notion of remuneration. Modelled on the contract of employment, remuneration can turn into a tool to share profits with the employees according to the performance of the company. Sharing profits with the employees according to the company’s performance is a multifaceted action. Its first effects appear within the scope of the labor code: the notions of individual and collective meet to give a first draft of profit sharing. Salaries and employee savings plans are at the core of profit sharing. On the contrary, employee share ownership presents a twofold position: employee and associate. Profits then become perfectly shared.

Avhandlingen handlar om hur bedömningssystemet i bred bemärkelse presenterades i betygsdebatten i samband de politiska besluten om betygssystemet för gymnasiet mellan 1960 och 1995. Avhandlingen tar sin utgångspunkt i de berättelser som konstruerades under perioden. Syftet är att spåra och tolka förändringar i berättelserna om bedömning i anslutning till det politiska projektet att demokratisera och individualisera skolsystemet. Fokus är särskilt riktat mot de bedömningstekniker och innebörder för relationen mellan stat, lärare och elever som aktualiserades i samband med de två gymnasiereformerna. Härigenom synliggörs en viktig definitionskamp om statens förhållande till individen - lärare och elever - och hur makten i den nya enhetliga och demokratiska gymnasieskolan skulle förstås och organiseras. Avhandlingen pekar också på hur berättelser konkurrerar och hur en berättelse kan ges olika innebörder i förhållande till det politiska projektet att skapa en skola som tar till vara elevernas demokratiska möjligheter och lika villkor. / This thesis explores how the system of examination, in broad terms, was presented in the debate about grading around the political decisions regarding the upper secondary school between 1960 and 1995. The point of departure is the narratives that were constructed during the time period. The main objective is to trace and interpret changes in the narratives of evaluation as a part of the political project of democratization and individualization of the school system. Special attention is given to the different grading techniques and implications for the relation between State, teacher and pupil that surfaced in and around the school reforms in 1964 and 1994. This also sheds significant light on the meaning constructions and struggle around the State’s relation to the individual - teachers and pupils - and how power was to be viewed and organized in the new homogenous and democratic school. The thesis also shows the rivalry of narratives and how a narrative can be given various meanings in relation to the political project of creating a school that advocates the democratic opportunities and equal rights of pupils.

En ce début du XXIème siècle, un nombre d’auteurs sans cesse plus important développe un véritable enthousiasme pour des thématiques féminines. Plus précisément, il s’agit pour eux de mettre en exergue la quête identitaire des femmes dans notre société. Cette littérature révèle une omniprésence du corps et de la sexualité en lien étroit avec la société et les schémas culturels imposés tenant ainsi un discours novateur sur les femmes. Le but de cette recherche est de montrer comment un discours littéraire, en reprenant les discours socioculturels, féministes et psychanalystes du moment, conçoit la question de la femme et quelle représentation de la femme il produit. Face à cette réflexion sur la question de la femme et son identité, cette thèse centre son étude sur les romans de trois auteurs, Virginie Despentes, écrivain français, Lucía Etxebarria, écrivain espagnol et Maïssa Bey, écrivain algérien francophone. L’être femme est représenté dans un rapport avec la violence masculine mais aussi avec sa propre violence, dans son rapport au corps et à la sexualité, par des relations humaines conflictuelles ainsi que par une aliénation sociale et culturelle. Le personnage féminin est un personnage seul, enfermé dans une identité dans laquelle il ne se reconnaît plus et qu’il rejette. La quête de soi et de la reconnaissance de soi laisse apparaître leurs aspirations, en contradictions avec leurs attributions. A la fin de chaque roman, l’individualisation de la femme est envisagée par la reprise de parole. La reconstruction de soi ne peut être permise que par la maîtrise de la parole sur soi, et la quête d’individualisation doit se poursuivre / In our early 21th century, an increasingly number of writers gets a real enthusiasm for woman-related themes. More precisely, their purpose is to underline the identity quest of women in our society. This kind of literature uncovers a constant involvement of body and sexuality closely linked to society and to cultural schemes that society imposes - thus leading these authors to hold an innovative discourse about women. Our research aims to show how a literary discourse, drawing from actual sociocultural, feminist and psychoanalytic discourses, conceives the Woman issue and which representation of woman it can create. At the hands of this reflection about the Woman issue and her identity, the study focuses on three female authors’ novels, Virginie Despentes, a french writer, Lucia Extebarría, a spanish writer and Maïssa Bey, an algerian French-speaking writer. The woman being is portrayed in her relations with male violence but also with her own violence linked to her relation to body and sexuality, and through human struggles and a social and cultural alienation. The female character is lonely, confined to an identity in which she does not recognize herself anymore and that she rejects. The quest for self-knowledge and for self-recognition lets its longings emerge, in contradiction with their remit. In the end of each novel, woman’s individualization is imaged through a takeover of speech. Self-reconstruction can only be possible thanks to a control of speech about oneself and the individuation quest has to keep going