À l’origine, le droit administratif apparaissait essentiellement comme le droit applicable aux personnes publiques. Cette tendance imprégnait les catégories juridiques du droit administratif, marquées par la prédominance de l’élément organique, personne publique, dans l’assujettissement au droit administratif. Bien que le cadre conceptuel d’autrefois demeure aujourd’hui inchangé, il en va différemment désormais.La teneur des évolutions actuelles du droit administratif est remarquable. D’une part la participation croissante des personnes privées à l’action administrative, d’autre part l’interventionnisme des personnes publiques dans les sphères jadis réservées à l’action privée rejaillissent nécessairement sur les contours des catégories juridiques du droit administratif. Ces dernières doivent inévitablement refléter pareils changements. Deux tendances permettent d’en livrer témoignage. La première démontre que l’élément organique, la présence de la personne publique, perd de l’influence dans l’assujettissement au droit administratif. Il est, certes, toujours présent au sein des catégories juridiques, mais son rôle se transforme. La seconde conduit à observer que l’idée de fonction prend désormais la place de l’organe dans la logique de la soumission au droit administratif. Notre réflexion s’oriente ainsi vers la construction de la représentation de l’idée même de fonction et, plus spécifiquement, de la fonction administrative. Elle permet d’affirmer que la fonction administrative fournit une base explicative performante de l’assujettissement des catégories juridiques au droit administratif. C’est en effet la fonction d’intérêt général « caractérisé », dans le cadre de laquelle les catégories juridiques du droit administratif apparaissent, qui semble désormais déterminer et justifier leur statut juridique. Toutefois, cette tendance ne se manifeste pas uniformément au sein des catégories juridiques du droit administratif. Elle progresse néanmoins de manière constante et ne cesse de gagner de nouveaux terrains. / Originally, administrative law appeared essentially as the law applicable to public persons. This tendency permeated the legal categories of administrative law, marked by the predominance of the organic element, public person, in the subjection to administrative law. Although the conceptual framework of the past, unchanged today, it is different now.The content of current developments in administrative law is remarkable. On the one hand, the increasing participation of private persons in administrative action, on the other hand, the interventionism of public persons in the spheres formerly reserved for private action, necessarily affect the contours of the legal categories of administrative law. These must inevitably reflect such changes. Two trends are possible to set an example. The first shows that the organic element, the presence of the public person, loses influence in the subjection to administrative law. It is certainly always present in the legal categories, but its role is changing. The second leads to the observation that the idea of function now takes the place of the organ in the logic of submission to administrative law. Our reflection is thus oriented towards the construction of the representation of the very idea of function and, more specifically, of the administrative function. It makes it possible to affirm that the administrative function provides a powerful explanatory basis for the subjugation of legal categories to administrative law. It is indeed the 'specific' function of general interest, in which the legal categories of administrative law appear, which now seems to determine and justify their legal status. However, this trend is not uniformly reflected in the legal categories of administrative law. It is nevertheless progressing steadily and continues to gain new ground.

Syftet med studien är att klargöra den brukningsvärda jordbruksmarkens skydd och bevarande ur ett nationellt och hållbart perspektiv inom fysisk samhällsplanering. Den övergripande frågeställningen handlar om vad det finns för problematik när det gäller att bevara eller exploatera jordbruksmark. Särskilt studeras lagstiftningens eventuella hinder, tydlighet och tillämpning. Studien fokuserar på den lagstiftning som berör kommunens fysiska planering. Länsstyrelsen har en rådgivande och övervakande roll över kommunen i samband med planläggning av mark- och vattenområden men har inga befogenheter att informera eller ingripa när det gäller brukningsvärd jordbruksmark. Ett område av nationell betydelse i 3 kap. miljöbalken (MB) behandlas därmed annorlunda av staten än ett område av riksintresse i 3- och 4 kap. MB. Tillvägagångssättet för att klargöra lagstiftning som berör kommunens fysiska planering och länsstyrelsens roll i samband med planläggning av mark och vatten utgörs av en kombinerad rättsdogmatisk metod och rättsociologisk metod. Studien redogör för lägesbilden idag och det som förändrats sedan år 2013, genom intervjuundersökning, enkätundersökning och studier av avgöranden i Mark-och miljööverdomstolen (MÖD) från år 2016 till idag. Resultat från intervju ger förslag på en ändrad plan- och bygglagstiftning som förändrar länsstyrelsens rådgivnings- och tillsynsroll i planprocessen. Prognos framöver är fortsatt exploatering av jordbruksmark. Resultat från studiens enkät visar att kommun och länsstyrelse tror på en minskad exploateringstakt fram till år 2030 av jordbruksmark omkring tätorter. Bostadsbebyggelse är ett väsentligt allmänt intresse och är enligt enkätundersökningen den främsta anledningen till att jordbruksmark exploateras. Resultatet visar en ökad uppmärksamhet på jordbruksmarkens betydelse för livsmedelsproduktion och hållbar utveckling. Förslag från myndigheter på förändrat sätt att värdera jordbruksmark kan bidra till en ökad förståelse över jordbruksmarkens värde och betydelse för att uppnå hållbar utveckling. Enligt studien har förändring av rättsläget sedan år 2016 stärkt jordbruksmarkens bevarandevärde. MÖD konstaterar i studiens undersökta rättsfall: oavsett hur lite eller mycket marken brukas, oavsett klassning och oavsett om det är betes- eller åkermark anses jordbruksmark vara brukningsvärd och därmed inte lämplig att exploatera. / The aim of this study is to clarify the agricultural land that is suitable for cultivation and protection from a national and sustainable perspective within physical planning. The general inquiry in this study is whether there is a problem between preserving or developing agricultural land. Studying Swedish legislation, and any potential obstacles, as well as its clarity and applicability have been important to respond to the aim of this study. The study focuses on Swedish legislation that affects municipal physical planning. The County Administrative Board's has a provision of advice- and monitoring role when the municipal wants to plan for use of land- and water areas but has no empowerment to inform or interfere in agricultural land that is suitable for cultivation. Agricultural land is mentioned as an area of "national importance" in the Environmental Code in chapter 3, section 4 but other areas in the same chapter are mentioned as "national interests". This means that the Swedish Government protect the agricultural land differently than the other areas that are mentioned in this chapter. The chosen methods to clarify the Swedish legislation is applied using a legal dogmatic method and a sociology of law method. These methods are used to present Swedish legislation that concerns the municipal physical planning, as well as the County Administrative Board's and their part in monitoring the use of land and water. The study is an overview of the current situation and what has changed since the year of 2013, carried out by conducting a survey, an interview and studying precedents from the Land and Environment Court of Appeal from the year 2016 until present day. The interviews suggest a proposition that a changed Planning and Building Act can alter the municipal and the County Administrative Board's roles and authority regarding regulation and advice in the planning process. The forecast is that agricultural land is going to continue to be developed. The results from the survey indicate that the municipal and the County Administrative Board's believe that the development of agriculture land adjacent to the urban center are going to be reduced by the year of 2030. Housing development is known as a significant national interest and according to the survey it is the main reason to develop agricultural land. The survey result also indicates an increased awareness of agricultural land and the importance for food production and sustainable development. A proposition from authorities to evaluate agricultural land in a different way than before can also contribute to a deeper understanding of agricultural land's value and importance in achieving sustainable development. According to this study the legal postion changed in the year of 2016 which has consolidated the maintenance of agricultural land. The cases in this study from the Land and Environment Court of Appeal mention: no matter how much the agricultural land is being cultivated or not, no matter the classification and no matter if it is pasture or arable land, the agricultural land is suitable for cultivation and therefore not appropriate to develop.

Magister Legum - LLM / The culture of corruption is rooted deeply in Kenya. It may be described as an incurable infectious disease.1 Kenya has been ranked as one of the most corrupt countries in the world. For the last three years, Kenya has scored less than 27 percent in the Corruption Perceptions Index published by Transparency International. Corruption persists mainly because those in public office benefit from it and the existing institutions lack both the will and capacity to stop it. It persists despite the legislation, institutions and measures that have been put in place to fight it.3 The Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission is the main institution mandated to combat corruption in Kenya. The primary anti-corruption laws are the Public Officer Ethics Act No 4 of 2003, the Leadership and Integrity Act No 18 of 2014, the Public Officer Ethics (Management, Verification and Access to Financial Declaration) Regulations of 2011 and the Kenyan Constitution of 2010. One of the key anti-corruption measures is the system of wealth declarations by public officials established by the Public Officer Ethics Act (POEA). The POEA did not have an easy passage into law. When it was introduced in 2002, Kenya was governed by the Kenya African National Union (KANU), led by President Moi. The regime was characterised by autocratic rule, high levels of politically sanctioned corruption, rapid economic decline and massive accumulation of wealth for the politically connected.4 Unsurprisingly, President Moi did not assent to the enactment of the POEA. The National Rainbow Coalition (NARC) came into power in 2003 and re-commenced the process to pass the POEA into law. This was done with a view to curbing corruption and bolstering donor confidence.5 Regrettably, the NARC administration quickly replicated the corrupt practices of its predecessor, despite being elected on a platform of zero tolerance towards corruption. The new administration, which had promised war on corruption, instead was embracing corruption and denying citizens constitutional reforms.

LLM / Department of Mercantile Law / The study critically analyses the concurrent enforceability of restraint of trade and garden leave in South African Labour law. The study seeks to answer the question of whether or not the simultaneous enforceability of restraint of trade agreements and garden leave is reasonable. Designed within a qualitative paradigm primarily based on a critical literature review, the study employs a doctrinal approach to establish the contemporary legal position in respect of the simultaneous enforceability of restraint of trade agreements and garden leave in South African Labour law. The objectives pursued by the study are to mitigate the controversies and clear the confusion relating to the enforceability of restraint of trade agreements; to justify the doctrine of restraint of trade; assess the reasonableness of the simultaneous enforceability of garden leave and restraint of trade; examine the onus of proof in matters dealing with the enforceability of restraint of trade agreements; test the constitutionality of restraint of trade agreements; evaluate the relationship between restraint of trade agreements and garden leave; and propose practical recommendations that can be employed to address identified legal flaws in the context of the topic. Structurally, the study begins with unpacking the background to the research topic, the history, origin and rationality of restraint of trade agreements together with an assessment of their enforceability. It further examines the effect of garden leave on restraint of trade agreements, outlines comparative perspectives on restraint of trade, including aspects relating to garden leave and highlights lessons South Africa may learn from the selected jurisdictions. Finally, the study recommends that South African jurisprudence should be developed to shift the burden of proof to employers to prove reasonableness of garden leave and restraint of trade agreements, to impose an obligation on employers to pay former employees for rendering them jobless and to set a maximum period that an employee can be prevented to compete or be employed by employer’s competitors. / NRF

This dissertation is divided into a general part (chapters 1 through 6) and a specific part (chapter 7). The general part contains chapters devoted to the historical development of public prosecution and the office of the public prosecutor with an emphasis on developments in civil proceedings, primarily after 1989. Further attention is dedicated to a current expert discussion of the constitutional position of the office of the public prosecutor within the system of state power. Explanations are also given for the independence and impartiality of the office of the public prosecutor in a qualitative comparison with the independence and impartiality of the courts. The following part of the dissertation focuses on a description of the framework of the office of the public prosecutor, including the new institution of the Institute of the European Public Prosecutor. The subsequent chapter is concerned with the organisation and staffing of the non-criminal division of the public prosecutor's office on all levels. This is followed by a chapter devoted to the legal sources amending and relating to the non-criminal activity of the office of the public prosecutor. A substantial part of the general part of this dissertation consists of a description of the role of the office of the public prosecutor in civil...

Bevarandet av natur och miljö är en viktig del av Sveriges markanvändningsplanering. Ett sätt att bevara dessa rika områden på lång sikt är genom inrättandet av naturreservat. Naturreservat upprättas oftast av Länsstyrelsen för just detta syfte vilket i vissa fall kan stå i kontrast till kommunens önskan om att använda marken för andra intressen och ändamål. Ett sådant exempel utgör Naturreservatet Häcksören som upprättades i december 2021 av Länsstyrelsen i Uppsala och inom vilket Älvkarleby kommuns avloppsreningsverk är beläget. Reningsverket och naturreservatet representerar båda allmänna intressen som i den avvägning som gjorts strider mot varandra. Syftet med arbetet är att se hur utvecklingsambitionerna hos Älvkarleby kommun påverkas av den avvägning som är gjord mellan det allmänna intresset för reningsverket och det allmänna intresset för naturreservatet. Förhoppningen är att studien är till nytta för andra kommuner i fall där avvägningar görs mellan liknande motstridande allmänna intressen och där dess konsekvenser beaktas.  Studien är baserad på kvalitativa metoder som har genomförts via en kombination av litteraturstudie, semi-strukturerade intervjuer och studier i lagrum och domar för att på bästa sätt besvara arbetets frågeställningar. Sju intervjuer har genomförts med sakkunniga personer inom ämnet som representerar de olika myndigheterna samt en utomstående juridiskt sakkunnig. Resultatet av fallstudien visar att det finns olika syn mellan Älvkarleby kommun och Länsstyrelsen när det gäller den avvägningen som gjorts. Framför allt är detta förknippat med att de båda parterna ser fallet utifrån olika tidsperspektiv. Kommunen är angelägen om att ett eventuell nödvändigt framtida utökat ianspråktagande av mark för reningsverket säkerställs och således inte påverkar kommunens långsiktiga utvecklingsvisioner. Länsstyrelsens beslut grundar sig i situationen såsom den är idag. De förnekar inte att en utbyggnad av reningsverket kan bli aktuell men eftersom detta är oförutsägbart i tid och rum anses det inte relevant att ta detta i beaktande vid tillfället då reservatet inrättas. Studien avslutar med att diskutera huruvida kommunens argumentation ska tas i större beaktande vid liknande framtida fall. / Preserving nature and the environment is essential for Sweden's land use planning. One way to preserve these rich areas for the future is by setting up nature reserves. The County Administrative Board usually establishes nature reserves for this very objective, which in some cases may contrast with the municipality's desire to use the land for other interests and purposes. One such example is the Häcksören Nature Reserve, established in December 2021 by the County Administrative Board in Uppsala and within which Älvkarleby municipality's sewage treatment plant is located. The treatment plant and the nature reserve represent public interests that conflict with each other in the balance that has been struck. The purpose of the study is to see how the development ambitions of Älvkarleby municipality are affected by the balance that has been made between the general interest in the treatment plant and the public interest in the nature reserve. The hope is that the study will be helpful for other municipalities in cases where balances are made between similar conflicting public interests and where its consequences are considered. The study is based on qualitative methods carried out through a combination of literature study, semi-structured interviews, and studies in law and judgments to best answer the work's questions. Seven interviews were conducted with experts in the subject representing the various authorities and an outside legal expert. The case study results show that there are different views between Älvkarleby municipality and the County Administrative Board regarding the balance that has been made. Above all, this is associated with the two parties seeing the case from different time perspectives. The municipality is concerned that any necessary future increased use of land for the treatment plant is ensured and thus does not affect the municipality's long-term development visions. The County Administrative Board's decision is based on the situation today. They do not deny that an expansion of the treatment plant may be relevant, but since this is unpredictable in time and space, it is not considered pertinent to take this into account when the reserve is established. The study concludes by discussing whether the municipality's argumentation should be taken into more significant consideration in similar future cases.

No description available.

It is my contention that through activating participatory design and community engagement strategies, in conjunction with innovative construction methods that address issues of resource scarcity, the standard of living and level of accessibility to critical resources in impoverished portions of Honduras can be drastically improved. The newly provided model of construction can be done it such a way that it is cost effective in its building method, and provides highly sought after scarce critical resources. This allows participants to allocate more of their finances towards other necessary resources they normally would not be able to acquire. A new community center designed to address the issues of resource scarcity and job opportunities will stand as a first built model with the intent that the methods of construction and innovations employed will be replicated in further applications. The center will be innovative in its construction in such a way that it recognizes local building practices, and brings some new ideas to them allowing for a method of construction that is both improved and more affordable. The center will also take a fresh look at ways the community can address issues of food and water through architectural innovations. The intent is that the success of the center’s combined interventions will encourage local people to replicate the design ideas in their own residential applications. This will improve the quantity of resources available in the community and also start to build a new job market for installing the newly desirable systems. Resource scarcity has wreaked havoc on the typical Honduran villages’ sense of community. Hondurans are in constant competition with their neighbors for scarce critical resources required to sustain life. These resources include, food, water, shelter, and employment opportunities. Violent conflict often arises within communities as individuals compete with their neighbors for the basic necessities required to sustain life. While architecture alone cannot solve all the issues that contribute to the problem of violence, a new center with a program that builds community and provides needed resources stands to potentially curb neighborhood conflict and begin the community healing process. The center stands as not only a replicable model, but also as an immediate community element to bring neighbors back together physically in daily interactions and emotionally in the new resources being provided.

[pt] Esta pesquisa estuda o jornalismo empreendedor e o surgimento de veículos de jornalismo autodenominados independentes a partir dos anos 2010 sob o signo das plataformas digitais e sua relação e efetiva contribuição para o interesse público. A investigação foi estruturada a partir do marco teórico da Economia Política da Comunicação (EPC), que tem como eixo estruturante as análises, pela ótica marxista, do trabalho e das relações sociais e de poder incrustadas na produção e consumo de bens simbólicos nos processos de comunicação. Busca entender, à luz do interesse público, como esses novos veículos jornalísticos, em formatos diversos como sites, newsletters, podcasts, agências de checagem de informações, canais digitais de vídeo, surgem, se organizam, produzem e se relacionam. Apresentamos o contexto histórico e ideológico que influencia e promove esse movimento: o neoliberalismo e a reestruturação capitalista do final do século XX e início do XXI, que prega a ideologia da livre concorrência e do mito do sucesso do empreendedorismo, especialmente o individual, impulsionada por um presumido determinismo das tecnologias digitais. Analisamos a influência e interferência engendrada pelo duopólio das plataformas Google e Meta com suas práticas de vigilância e comercialização de dados e comportamentos junto a esses empreendimentos, provocando mudanças nos modos de fazer jornalismo, assim como as relações e tensões entre esses novos veículos e a mídia hegemônica. Elencamos ainda os projetos regulatórios e de ordenamento que podem minimizar e conter danos gerados pelas práticas capitalistas das plataformas e alternativas que têm sido estruturadas a partir de experiências coletivas cooperativadas, bem como destrinchamos as fontes de receitas usadas por esses empreendimentos jornalísticos e os riscos inerentes. A partir da coleta de dados e documentos, escuta em palestras e painéis de eventos, entrevistas semiestruturadas e de um questionário respondido por 82 jornalistas que criaram ou fazem parte desses veículos, comprovamos a hipótese aqui proposta de que esse jornalismo independente tem provocado e fomentado pautas e inquietações na mídia tradicional, assim como promovido temas e discussões que encontram ações e respostas nas esferas legislativas e executivas em prol do interesse público. Reconhecemos que esse ambiente passa por um processo de reconfiguração e maturação que ainda provocará mudanças, alternâncias de papéis e oscilações de atuação desses atores. Identificamos a existência de vulnerabilidades e precarização para os profissionais empreendedores dessas iniciativas, especialmente em relação à fragilidade presente na maior parte dos modelos de financiamento praticados por eles. Como contribuição para futuras pesquisas neste mesmo campo sugerimos categorização e autodenominação que permita maior clareza de representação desses empreendimentos no ambiente de produção jornalística, assim como de sua relevante e significativa atuação voltada ao interesse público. / [en] This research investigates the entrepreneurial and independent journalism outlets emerging from the 2010s across the digital platform s emergence and their relationship and effective contribution to the public interest. We structured the investigation under the theoretical framework of the Political Economy of Communication (EPC), which has as its structuring axis, from a Marxist perspective, the work, social and power relations embedded in the production and consumption of symbolic goods in the communication processes. It seeks to understand, in the light of the public interest, how these new journalistic vehicles, in different formats such as websites, newsletters, podcasts, information checking agencies, digital video channels, emerge, organize themselves, produce and interact with each other. We present the historical and ideological context that influences and promotes this movement: neoliberalism and capitalist restructuring at the end of the 20th and beginning of the 21st centuries, which preaches the ideology of free competition and the myth of the success of self-entrepreneurship, driven by a presumed determinism of digital technologies. We also analyze the influence and interference engendered by the duopoly of the Google and Meta platforms with their practices of surveillance and data and behavior commercialization, causing changes in journalism made, as well as the relationships and tensions between these new vehicles and the media hegemonic. There is a list of the regulatory and planning projects that can minimize and contain damages generated by the capitalist practices of platforms and alternatives that have been structured based on cooperative collective experiences, as well as unravel the sources of revenue used by these journalistic ventures and the inherent risks. From the collection of data and documents, listening to lectures and event panels, semi-structured interviews and a questionnaire answered by 82 journalists who created or are working on these vehicles, we proved the hypothesis proposed here that this independent journalism has been provoking and promoting agendas and concerns in the traditional media, as well as themes and discussions that find actions and responses in the legislative and executive spheres in favor of the public interest. We recognize that this environment is going through a process of reconfiguration and maturation that will still cause changes, role alternations and fluctuations in the performance of these actors. We identified the existence of vulnerabilities and precariousness for professional entrepreneurs in these initiatives, especially in relation to the fragility present in most of the financing models they practice. As a contribution to future research in this field, we suggest categorization and self-designation that allows greater clarity in the representation of these vehicles in the actual journalistic production environment, as well as their relevant and significant performance aimed at the public interest.

The journalist’s responsibility to the public is to deliver objective and impartial news, but during the height of the societal and feminist Metoo-movement, the content of newspaper publications varied significantly. This variation was influenced partially  by the human factor, ownership, and established guidelines regarding the publication of names at the newspapers.  This study aims to clarify the ethical deliberations behind the publication of names in the news media, specifically at four of Sweden's largest newspapers, Dagens Nyheter, Svenska Dagbladet, Aftonbladet and Expressen. For this, a qualitative interview and a qualitative text analysis method has been used, the answers were subsequently analyzed based on the agenda setting-theory, consequence neutrality and the social responsibility methodology. One respondent was chosen from each newspaper and was asked about ethical deliberations, what makes a name publication viable, what consequences might come of it and how they interpret the newspapers’ actions surrounding the publications about Benny Fredriksson. The case of Benny Fredriksson is used as a concrete example whereas it led to extensive ethical discussions in the Swedish press. The study also examines how newspapers’ publications and ethical deliberations differ from each other. The conclusion comes to that there is a difference between them, not only in how they published 2017, but additionally how they argue now. Dagens Nyheter, Aftonbladet and Svenska Dagbladet, all base their arguments in a social responsibility theory, while Expressen lean towards a consequences neutrality perspective.