台灣自1994年起由文建會推動社區營造，有別於中央主導的方式，，試圖以「在地行動」、「由下而上」的核心概念，讓社區發展以在地居民需求為導向，自發性地營造出各具特色的社區。但社造是涉及許多共用資源管理的複雜議題，早期臺灣地區居民缺乏社造經驗，參與公共事務的意願不高，加上未有一套完整的模式進行輔導，導致二十年來實際成功之案例並不多見。近年來隨著公眾議題發燒，臺灣民眾自主意識提升、開始重視公共事務，正是積極發展社造之際。但環顧國內社區對於共用資源的管理，能在期盼有一套良好的制度或模式得以依循。 本研究案例木柵二期重劃區，其自主組織「木柵二期重劃區促進發展協進會」透過社會生態系統(Social-Ecological System；以下簡稱SES)的應用，有效將自主治理理論(Self-governance Theory)運用於社造，用以解決共用資源的問題，甚至曾受邀請至世界衛生組織(WHO)，分享成功經驗。但本研究發現，將自主治理理論應用於社造之研究竟付之闕如，更沒有一套可供社造工作者參考的模型。故本研究試圖以木柵二期重劃區為案例，建立一套社造自主治理之量化模型。 本研究整理自主治理領域的相關文獻後發現，自主治理的研究雖以質化研究為主，但隨著SES的演進與簡化，是有建立量化模型之可能性。故本研究先對本案例「木柵二期重劃區」進行深度訪談及問卷調查，匯整其成功自主治理之社造沿革、社造過程、社造結果的要素，並將其與SES各種核心子系統進行對應，發現有其適用性。據此，再參考2014年的架構，提出資源體系、資源單體、治理體系、參與者四個構面皆顯著影響作用情境之假設，建立本案例之社造社會生態系統模型，於2014年11月對區內20歲以上居民發放問卷。 因素分析的結果顯示，模型整體的建構效度良好；但核心子系統需修正為三個(因本案例之資源體系與資源單體的重疊性較高，故歸納為資源體系稱之)。其次，迴歸分析驗證之結果亦顯示本案例所提出之資源體系、參與者顯著影響作用情境，此兩個假設獲得支持；另外由於當初將治理體系的設定為地方政府，將自主治理組織木柵二期重劃區促進發展協進會歸納為參與者，導致結果顯示治理體系不會顯著影響作用情境。 故本研究的結果顯示，透過SES模型將自主治理理論導入社造是一條可行的方式，然社造的議題涉及層面與考量因素甚廣，且於世界各地亦有許多官方、民間的組織仍不斷的實作以及推廣。唯本研究僅以自主治理理論是否可導入社造為角度切入，與當前主流理論不盡相同，須就其優缺點、以及對現象的解釋力進行比較，然受限於本研究之時間、人力、成本，仍待後續研究者的協助。 研究者本身為協進會理事長，經由近十年之實務操作經驗，並透過本研究之驗證，深知社造之特徵實與自主治理理論概念相近、本研究所建立之社造SES模型，亦有良好的建構效度。故期望能將此實證建構之模型推廣到更多地區，建立社造成功的模式、營造更多桃花源般的社區，使人安住休息，並希望人類從此幸福、和諧、安康。 / Ever since 1994, the Council for Cultural Affairs (CCA) in Taiwan has pro-moted a placemaking movement totally different from the programs previously offered. With the core concepts of “local activities” and “bottom-up” in mind, the movement aims to help develop the communities around the island that could meet the demands of the local residents and automatically display their unique-ness. In the early days, however, the residents in Taiwan did not seem to get very actively involved in public affairs and have access to a good model to follow. Successful cases were rare in the past two decades. In the recent years, public issues have been under heated discussion and autonomous consciousness, raised among the general public. The time has come to develop the placemaking. Considering the management of common-pool resources involved with placemaking and the people’s total lack of the experience, a good system or model is needed to follow. However, the problems faced with the management of common-pool resources, home or abroad, have not been solved, either through the free market or the government centralization, until 1990 when Ostrom proposed his self-governance theory. But no research has been found on the application of self-governance theory to placemaking so far. Taking this into account, this research is intended to apply self-governance theory to the placemaking in “the second phase of re-planning the Mu-zha District” as an example. Through depth interviews and questionnaire survey, this study tries to know how residents themselves have worked on their placemaking, what are the key factors for their success, and, further, have a good grip of how their self-governance organization—The Community Development Association of the Second Phase of Re-planning the Mu-zha District —has applied self-governance theory to the placemaking so successfully. To illustrate, first, through depth interviews with experts, scholars, and local opinion leaders, this researcher collected the data on the evolution of placemaking in the second phase of re-planning the Mu-zha District, its process and outcomes, finding that “community resources in place” and “leaders with strong leadership” are the key factors for residents’ high satisfaction. Then, in the qualitative study, this researcher compared each of the counterparts both in self-governance system and social-ecological system (SES), finding that the self-governance theory has its applicability. Next, to establish a SES framework suited for this study, this researcher adapted the SES set by McGinnis and Ostrom in 2014 and proposed the resource system, the resource unit, the governance system and participants for factor anal-ysis. In November, 2014, questionnaires were handed out to the district residents aged 20 and over. Through factor analysis, it is found that the construct validity of the so-cial-ecological system for this study is good. Since there is a considerable overlap between the resources system in this study and the resources unit, we called them the resources system. The regression analysis also concludes that the resources system and participants proposed in this study are gaining support. Because the hypothesis of governance system in this research is local government, the inhab-itant trusts the Development Association; therefore the governance system cannot obviously affect the focal action situation. With one decade’s practical experience in the placemaking and through the verification of this study, this researcher, also the chairman of Community De-velopment Association realizes that the features of placemaking are quite close to the concept of self-governance theory. And the construct validity of the estab-lished SES in this study also proves to be good.It is therefore highly expected that the model of placemaking proposed in this study could be promoted to more re-gions around the whole world in the hope of building more wonderful communi-ties, where people could live peacefully and happily.

A system of systems (SoS) framework is proposed for policy design that takes into account the value systems of multiple participants, harnesses the complexity of strategic interactions among participants, and confronts the risks and uncertainties present in participants’ decision making. SoS thinking provides an integrative and adaptive mindset, which is needed to tackle policy challenges characterized by conflict, complexity, and uncertainty. With the aim of putting SoS thinking into practice, operational methods and tools are presented herein. Specifically, SoS engineering methodologies to create value system models, agent-based models of competitive and cooperative behaviour under conflict, and risk management models are developed and integrated into the framework. The proposed structure, methods and tools can be utilized to organize policy design discourse. Communication among participants involved in the policy discussion is structured around SoS models, which are used to integrate multiple perspectives of a system and to test the effectiveness of policies in achieving desirable outcomes under varying conditions. In order to demonstrate the proposed methods and tools that have been developed to enliven policy design discourse, a theoretical common-pool resources dilemma is utilized. The generic application illustrates the methodology of constructing ordinal preferences from values. Also, it is used to validate the agent-based modeling and simulation platform as a tool to investigate strategic interactions among participants and harness the potential to influence and enable participants to achieve desirable outcomes. A real-world common pool resources dilemma in the provisioning and security considerations of the Straits of Malacca and Singapore is examined and employed as a case study for applying strategic conflict models in risk management. Overall, this thesis advances the theory and application of SoS engineering and focuses on understanding value systems, handling complexity in terms of conflict dynamics, and finally, enhancing risk management.

本文旨在探討灌溉水資源系統中的「水圳」，在歷史的發展脈絡下如何成為農村不可或缺的依賴性治理制度。而都市化與工業發展興起後，水圳面臨了設施改造與治理困境，其制度本身所產生之變革以及新興治理機制對原有組織之影響。 本文透過美濃獅子頭水圳為個案研究，運用伊利諾‧歐斯壯(E.Ostrom)之「共用資源永續發展治理八大原則」為水圳資源有效治理之理論背景，檢視早期美濃獅子頭水圳的集體行動組織（地方水利會-農民），如何成功地在自主治理的機制中運作，並探討在現代化發展過程中宏觀的外在結構環境，包含農業轉型、停徵會費、派系競爭、水患問題等變化，對既有的共用資源制度產生的衝擊與弱化。以及民主化後由愛鄉協進會透過反水庫社會運動帶動社區總體營造對於水圳治理的創新模式。本文認為早期獅子頭水圳在資源邊界、集體選擇、對組織權最低限度認可與多中心治理等面向建立起維持永續發展之基礎。制度本身雖遭受外在環境變遷而呈現鬆散，但由於觀光休閒農業的推廣，吸引農村漂鳥回流，對灌溉水資源的參與治理渴望達到穩定的力量。並且，透過給予掌水工與水利小組的正式與非正式制度性誘因，可以有效調節灌溉用水並做為提供移轉調撥其他產業用水的基礎。最後，在地方性非營利組織「愛鄉協進會」進入水圳系統的治理後，挑戰由半官僚水利會所掌控的政治經濟功能掛帥水圳系統，更融入生態、文化、公民參與等不同的元素形成一共同治理新模式，除了延續後農業時代水圳的灌溉功能之外，也強化其制度韌性。藉由這些發現，本文進而提出實務與理論的研究建議，以做為後農業時代水資源灌溉系統的永續發展之借鏡。 / The subject of this essay is to explore the reason why an irrigation canal, in the process of historical development, became an indispensable governance institution in the villages. Also, in the advent of urbanization and industrialization, the irrigation canal faces a situation of the renovation of facility as well as the predicament of governance, in which the institution itself changes and newly governance system influences the original organizations. This study takes Shihtou Irrigation Canal in Meinung as the object. Using Elino Ostrom’s eight design principles of stable local common pool resource (CPR) management to review the successful self-governance mechanisms in operation performed by the early local collective action organization (mainly made by Taiwan Joint Irrigation Association and farmers). Also the paper explains the impacts of macro-environment, including the agricultural transformation, stop collecting fees, factional competition and flooding, on the existing system of CPR. And an innovational governance participated by a Meinung People's Association, a grass-roots organization from anti-reservoir activities to comprehensive community development in the era of post-democratization. Results of this study showed as follows: Firstly, early Shihtou irrigation canal maintain the basis for establishing sustainable development as result of clearly defined boundaries, collective-choice arrangement, minimal recognition of rights to organize, and nested enterprises. Besides, although it was weaken by the later change of external structure, the development of leisure agriculture attracted recurrent youth for agriculture, who was desired for reviving the power of appropriation in canal self-governance. Meanwhile, the institutional design of water-inspectors and water conservancy group arranged through formal and informal incentives can effectively regulate the right of water for irrigation and serve as providing the basis for the allocation of water for other industries. Finally, a local non-profit organization Meinung People's Association challenges the governance system originally controlled by a half-bureaucratic management of local Farm Irrigation Association. Compared with the mainly political and economic functions of water governance by the latter, the former emphasize the different elements of ecological, cultural, and civic participation. This formation of New model of shared governance in canal not only continue its irrigational function in post-agriculture, but also strengthen its institutional tenacity..With these findings, the paper puts forward practical and theoretical study suggests in order to learn as a sustainable development of water resources in the era of post-agricultural irrigation systems.

近年來，社區林業的推行已然成為國際間林業經營的新趨勢，而我國亦在2002年推動「社區林業－居民參與保育共生計畫」，倡導「林業走出去，民眾走進來」的社區林業理念，該理念之倡導，旨在鼓勵在地居民參與，凝聚共識及培養社區自主能力，並由政府與社區居民及民間組織形成夥伴關係，以協力推動生物多樣性保育、永續森林生態旅遊及相關林業建設，藉以達成社區發展與森林永續之目標。 台大實驗林過去的林業治理多半採由上而下的治理方式，常導致管理單位與當地居民的對立，治理成效未盡理想，故台大實驗林管理處近年來嘗試遴選適當社區，推動社區林業，期望能找到林業資源治理新契機，然而，其成效若何值得深入考察，又因實驗林乃肩負試驗研究、教學實習、示範經營、環境保育等責任，本研究認為若能在此地區為政策示範地區，當能作為全國的林業治理借鏡，故遴選其轄區內執行之社區為個案加以探討，以獲悉施行實況。 森林係屬排他性很低但取用的減損性高的共用資源(Common Pool Resources, CPR)之一，若未能妥善經營管理，則易產生「共用地悲劇」。Elinor Ostrom(1990)曾就此提出由社區自主治理永續制度安排的設計原則，故本研究將藉以援引，並採深入訪談法，評估台大實驗林接受社區林業補助的案例的施行成果，提出自主治理的難題，包含參與者界定困難、參與者投入的成本與獲得效益不相稱、尚無監督參與者的機制、無權進行制裁機制、上級主管單位授權不足，並提出相關解決對策，期望使社區林業政策之推動更臻成熟，亦透過本研究肯認台大實驗林未來發展生態旅遊之潛力，而為改善我國森林資源治理效能之方針。 / In recent years, the implementation of community forestry industry has become a new trend in the international forestry operations , while now is also promoting " Community Forestry - residents to participate in conservation Symbiosis Project " in 2002 , advocated " Forestry go outside , people come inside ," the community forestry concept the idea of the initiative, designed to encourage residents to participate in the ground , build consensus and foster community autonomy , the government formed by residents and non-governmental organizations and community partnerships to promote the conservation of biological diversity in the third , sustainable forest eco-tourism and related forestry construction , in order to achieve the goal of sustainable community development and forest . The Experimental Forest of National Taiwan University (hereafter referred to as the Experimental Forest) past forestry governance mostly adopt a top-down governance , often leading management units and local residents opposing governance performance unsatisfactory , the Experimental Forest in recent years to try the selection of appropriate community , promote community forestry, expect to find new opportunities for forest resource management , however , the effectiveness of how worthy of further investigation, because of the experimental forests are shouldering experimental research, teaching practice , demonstration management, environmental conservation and other responsibilities , this study suggests that if the demonstration in the area of regional policy when a country's forestry governance can learn from , so the selection of its communities in the area to be explored is the case , learned to perform live . Department of Forestry is low but exclusive access to the shared resources with high impairment (Common Pool Resources, CPR) one of , if not the proper management, is easy to produce , " shared the tragedy ." Elinor Ostrom (1990) had been made by the community self- governance and sustainable design principles of institutional arrangements , the purpose of this study will be invoked , and mining depth interviews to assess the implementation of the outcome of Experimental Forest accepted the case of community forestry subsidies , raise self- governance the problem, in order to propose solutions that promote community forestry policies more mature, improve the performance of our forest resources governance .

Werden Defizite in Bewässerungssystemen als rein technisches Problem betrachtet, führt dies zur Ausblendung sozialer und kultureller Aspekte der Ressourcenverwaltung. Als Konsequenz werden sinnvolle technische Innovationen von der Bevölkerung nicht angenommen und verbleiben letztendlich ungenutzt. Bisherige Studien über das südmarokkanische Oasengebiet im Ziz-Tal hatten überwiegend ökologische und ingenieurtechnische Ansätze verfolgt. Das Forschungsinteresse dieser Arbeit liegt stärker auf den kollektiven Handlungsmustern, Regelsystemen und spezifischen Variationen sozialer Vereinbarungen in Form von formellen und informellen Institutionen der traditionellen und der heutigen Bewässerung. Zum Verständnis der gegenwärtigen Situation werden die rechtlichen und politischen Rahmenbedingungen, der soziokulturelle Kontext sowie die naturräumlichen Voraussetzungen und Umweltveränderungen – mit besonderem Blick auf die verfügbaren Wasserressourcen in dieser ariden Region – analysiert und das institutionelle Gefüge in einer auf Methoden der qualitativen Sozialforschung basierenden Fallstudie in einem Oasendorf untersucht.

本研究由個人參與社區發展行動的動機與選擇決策作為研究的重心，以理性選擇行為模式為理論基礎，探討社區發展上如何才能克服集體行動的困境，建立永續性的自主治理機制。由於社區事務具有小規模共用資源（Common-Pool Resources；CPRs）的特性，在功能上及產權上無法分割，在使用上無排他性（non- exclusive）但具有某種程度的敵對性（rivalry），過度取用將產生資源耗竭的現象。因此本研究援引共用資源分析方法（Common-Pool Resources Approach）作為分析架構，從個人選擇與互動形式、外部環境與技術的變量以及組織與執行機制三方面，探討社區居民是否形成自主治理的集體行動及其影響變量。 本研究採用多重個案研究的複現方法，選取了三處遭遇特定事件觸發了社群共同議題，而由外力團隊協助建立治理組織之社區，作為實證研究之個案。包括：（1）南投縣中寮鄉的農村社區在歷經九二一大地震後，面對土地資源永續利用與產業轉型的議題；（2）桃園縣龍潭鄉百年大鎮大型住宅社區因社區組織不健全，導致社區環境出現安全問題；（3）台北縣鶯歌鎮陶瓷老街因政策獲選為形象商圈，店家面臨商圈環境管理與商圈行銷議題。 / Base on the theory of reasonable choice behavior mode, the study focus on the resident’s individual motive and decision making process trying to identify the solutions of breaking the bottlenecks of collective actions and build up the sustainable self-government mechanism. The community affairs are small scale common-pool resources CPRs) therefore we cannot clearly dive up their ownerships and functions. In the aspects of usage, the community affairs are non-exclusive but kind of rivalry. It will be decreased if being over-deprived. Thus, this study adopted the common-pool resources approach as the analytical structure to explore if the community residents have organized the collective actions of self-government and the influence variables form 3 major aspects of “individual choice vs. interactive form”, “external environment vs. technical variables” and “organization vs. enforcement mechanism ”. The study took 3 occasional events which touched off some common agenda in the community and have the residents established the organizations of governance by the assistance of external teams as the impractical cases. The three cases included: (1)The agenda faced by rural villages on the aspects of land sustainable usage and industrial transformation in Jhingliao Township of Nantou County, (2) The safety problems brought by the poor community organization of the big scale residential community—Netown in Longtan Township of Taoyuan County.(3) The marketing and business district environment management issues brought by being selected as the official model business district in the Yingge Township of Taipei County.

In developing countries, farmers are dealing with climatic changes by adapting their agricultural practices. Little work has investigated the direct impact of structural variables (e.g., central vs. local management of irrigation water, location of village), psychological variables (e.g., risk perceptions, self-efficacy), and adaptation on crop yield. We tested a psychology-based model that focused on risk perceptions and efficacy beliefs by longitudinally surveying 278 Sri Lankan rice farmers. We assessed risk perceptions and efficacy beliefs before the major paddy-growing season and measured whether farmers performed adaptations as well as their paddy yield/acre after the season. The model significantly predicted more than 25% of the variance in crop yield, with increased yields associated with centrally managed irrigation resources and with farmers low in perceived climate risk at the start of the growing season. Findings support the notion that while psychological factors are important, structural variables are the most important predictors of farm productivity in times of uncertain water supply.

Werden Defizite in Bewässerungssystemen als rein technisches Problem betrachtet, führt dies zur Ausblendung sozialer und kultureller Aspekte der Ressourcenverwaltung. Als Konsequenz werden sinnvolle technische Innovationen von der Bevölkerung nicht angenommen und verbleiben letztendlich ungenutzt. Bisherige Studien über das südmarokkanische Oasengebiet im Ziz-Tal hatten überwiegend ökologische und ingenieurtechnische Ansätze verfolgt. Das Forschungsinteresse dieser Arbeit liegt stärker auf den kollektiven Handlungsmustern, Regelsystemen und spezifischen Variationen sozialer Vereinbarungen in Form von formellen und informellen Institutionen der traditionellen und der heutigen Bewässerung. Zum Verständnis der gegenwärtigen Situation werden die rechtlichen und politischen Rahmenbedingungen, der soziokulturelle Kontext sowie die naturräumlichen Voraussetzungen und Umweltveränderungen – mit besonderem Blick auf die verfügbaren Wasserressourcen in dieser ariden Region – analysiert und das institutionelle Gefüge in einer auf Methoden der qualitativen Sozialforschung basierenden Fallstudie in einem Oasendorf untersucht.

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Progress towards sustainability requires changes in our individual and collective behaviour. Yet, our fundamental understanding of behaviour in relation to environmental change remains severely limited. In particular, little attention has been given to how individual and collective behaviours respond to, and are shaped by, non-linear environmental change (such as ‘regime shifts’) and its inherent uncertainties. The thesis makes two main contributions to the literature: 1) it provides one of the first accounts of human behaviour and collective action in relation to ecological regime shifts and associated uncertainties; and 2) extends the incipient behavioural common-pool resource literature that acknowledges social-ecological dynamics and ecological complexity. The overarching aim of this thesis is to further advance an empirically grounded understanding of human behaviour in social-ecological systems. In particular, the thesis attempts to unravel critical social-ecological factors and mechanisms for the sustainability of common-pool resources. This is especially relevant for contexts in which livelihoods can be more directly threatened by regime shifts. The following methods are applied: behavioural economic experiments in the lab (with students; Papers I and II) and in the field (with small-scale fishers from four different communities in the Colombian Caribbean; Paper III), and agent-based modelling empirically informed by a subset of the lab experiments (Paper IV). Paper I tests the effect of an endogenously driven regime shift on the emergence of cooperation and sustainable resource use. Paper II tests the effect of different risk levels of such a regime shift. The regime shift in both papers has negative consequences for the productivity of the shared resource. Paper III assesses the effect of different degrees of uncertainty about a climate-induced threshold in stock dynamics on the exploitation patterns; as well as the role of social and ecological local context. Paper IV explores critical individual-level factors and processes affecting the simultaneous emergence of collective action and sustainable resource use. Results cumulatively suggest that existing scientific knowledge indicating the potential for ecological regime shifts should be communicated to affected local communities, including the remaining uncertainties, as this information can encourage collective action for sustainable resource use. Results also highlight the critical role of ecological knowledge, knowledge-sharing, perceived ecological uncertainties, and the role local contexts play for sustainable outcomes. This thesis enriches the literature on social-ecological systems by demonstrating how a behavioural experimental approach can contribute new insights relevant for sustainability. Overall, these insights indicate that, given the opportunity and the willingness of people to come together, share knowledge, exchange ideas, and build trust, potential ecological crises can encourage collective action, and uncertainties can be turned into opportunities for dealing with change in constructive ways. This provides a hopeful outlook in the face of escalating environmental change and inherent uncertainties. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: Manuscript.</p>