Finanskrisen 2007-2008 blev startskottet för nya bankregleringar och åtstramningar.Regelverket Basel III introducerades med syfte att hantera risker bättre genom att införahårdare kapital- och likviditetskrav som i sin tur skulle motverka eventuella nya systematiskarisker. Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka Basel III:s påverkan på diversifieringen avfastighetsfinansiering på den svenska marknaden och utreda de drivkrafter och effekter avdessa förändringar. Studien ämnar att ge ett brett perspektiv genom att undersöka påverkan påett flertal sektorer i den empiriska undersökningen. Efter genomförandet av studien så kan det konstateras att bankerna har fått ökade kostnadersom sedermera har förskjutits till kunderna. Vidare har belåningsgraderna i fastighetssektornminskat till följd av implementeringen Basel III. Det nya regulatoriska landskapet har banat väg för diversifiering. Dock, så kan de primäradrivkrafterna tillskrivas makro-sentiment, jakt på avkastning, market timing och aktörer somhar vuxit ifrån sitt beroende av bankkapital. / The financial crisis of 2007-2008 was the start of new banking regulations and austeritymeasures. Basel III was introduced with the intent of managing risks better by introducingstricter capital and liquidity requirements. The new requirements would in return counteractany new systematic risks. The purpose of this study is to investigate Basel III’s impact oncredit diversification on the Swedish market and navigate what the driving forces are and theeffects of regulatory change. The aim is to provide a broad perspective by presenting valuableinformation relevant to the subject and examining the impact of these changes on differentsectors. The results of the study shows that new regulations have entailed a major regulatory changewith subsequent implications on the market. Findings also show that banks have experiencedan increase of costs which have since been shifted to customers. Furthermore, loan-to-valueratios within the real estate sector have decreased as a result of the implementation of BaselIII. The new regulatory framework has paved the way for diversification. However, thedevelopment has been propelled by macro sentiment, reaching for yield-behavior, markettiming and firms outgrowing their dependency on bank capital.

This thesis presents the design and development of a web-based platform intended to streamline the public sector funding process for startups by employing a matching algorithm. The platform was developed as part of a Bachelor's program in Computer Engineering and aims to address the inefficiencies and complexities currently impeding startup access to vital funding sources. Utilizing the MERN technology stack (MongoDB, Express.js, React, and Node.js), the project integrates web-based technologies to enhance user experience and ensure robust security measures aligning with GDPR standards. The methodology adopted includes agile development practices to facilitate iterative testing and improvements. The system's use of data from public funding webpages, combined with API integration and web scraping techniques, ensures a rich database of funding opportunities tailored to startups' diverse needs. This thesis serves as a practical solution for startups striving to navigate the complex landscape of public sector funding. / Den här uppsatsen presenterar designen och utvecklingen av en webbaserad plattform avsedd att effektivisera processen för offentlig finansiering till startups genom att använda en matchningsalgoritm. Plattformen, som utvecklats är en del av ett högskoleingenjörsprogram inom datateknik och syftar till att adressera de ineffektiviteter och komplexiteter som för närvarande hindrar startups från att få tillgång till nödvändiga finansieringskällor. Genom att använda MERN-teknikstacken (MongoDB, Express.js, React och Node.js) integrerar projektet webbteknologier för att förbättra användarupplevelsen och säkerställa robusta säkerhetsåtgärder i linje med GDPR-standarder. Den antagna metoden inkluderar agila utvecklingspraxis för att underlätta iterativ testning och förbättringar. Systemets användning av data från offentliga finansieringswebbplatser, kombinerat med API-integration och webbskrapningstekniker, säkerställer en rik databas med finansieringsmöjligheter anpassade till startups mångfaldiga behov. Denna avhandling fungerar som en praktisk lösning för startups som strävar efter att navigera i det komplexa landskapet för offentlig sektorfinansiering.

The EU Taxonomy, a cornerstone of the EU’s sustainable finance framework, serves as a vital tool for market transparency by defining criteria for economic activities aligned with a net-zero trajectory by 2050 and other environmental goals. This new regulation significantly impacts the real estate sector, presenting substantial challenges for residential developers in aligning with its requirements. Given the recent implementation of the Taxonomy, limited research exists on its practical impacts. This thesis aims to fill this gap by exploring the challenges and strategies of Swedish residential real estate developers in adapting to the EU Taxonomy.  The study employs a qualitative research approach, conducting semi-structured interviews with industry stakeholders to examine organizational, technical, economic, and external perspectives. The findings reveal that developers struggle with the Taxonomy’s complexity, insufficient guidance, and lack of standardized approaches. Additional challenges include conflicting stakeholder expectations and inconsistent local government directives. The significant resources and upfront costs required for alignment further complicate compliance. To overcome these challenges, companies are integrating sustainability into core business strategies, fostering cross-departmental collaboration, and adopting green innovations in project design and construction. Financially, they are pursuing green financing options, recognizing their importance for competitiveness and investor appeal. Additionally, companies are engaging in industry networks and seeking external guidance.  The study underscores the critical role of external market dynamics in driving the adoption of the EU Taxonomy. Investors and creditors, through increased scrutiny and demand for sustainable investments, promote compliance. Integrating sustainability into business strategies is not only a regulatory requirement but also essential for long-term competitiveness and resilience. / EU-taxonomin, en hörnsten i EU’s ramverk för hållbar finansiering, är ett viktigt verktyg för att skapa marknadstransparens genom att definiera kriterier för ekonomiska aktiviteter som är i linje med en netto-noll-resa till 2050 och andra miljömål. Denna nya reglering har haft stor påverkan på fastighetssektorn och medför betydande utmaningar för bostadsutvecklare att anpassa sig till dess krav. Med tanke på att taxonomin nyligen implementerats finns det begränsad forskning om dess praktiska påverkan. Denna avhandling syftar till att fylla denna lucka genom att utforska utmaningarna och strategierna hos svenska bostadsutvecklare i anpassningen till EU-taxonomin.  Studien använder en kvalitativ forskningsmetod och genomför semi-strukturerade intervjuer med branschaktörer för att undersöka organisatoriska, tekniska, ekonomiska och externa perspektiv. Resultaten visar att utvecklare kämpar med taxonomins komplexitet, otillräcklig vägledning och bristen på standardiserade tillvägagångssätt. Ytterligare utmaningar inkluderar motstridiga förväntningar från olika intressenter och inkonsekventa direktiv från lokala myndigheter. De betydande resurser och initiala kostnader som krävs för att uppnå överensstämmelse försvårar dessutom efterlevnaden.  För att hantera dessa utmaningar integrerar företag hållbarhet i sina kärnstrategier, främjar tvärfunktionellt samarbete och antar gröna innovationer i projektutformning och byggnation. Finansiellt söker de gröna finansieringsalternativ och erkänner deras betydelse för konkurrenskraft och investerarattraktion. Dessutom engagerar sig företag i branschnätverk och söker extern vägledning.  Studien betonar den kritiska rollen hos externa marknadsdynamiker i att driva införandet av EU-taxonomin. Investerare och långivare, genom ökad granskning och krav på hållbara investeringar, främjar efterlevnad. Att integrera hållbarhet i affärsstrategier är inte bara ett regulatoriskt krav utan också avgörande för långsiktig konkurrenskraft och motståndskraft.

Gräsrotsfinansiering har under 2010-talet vuxit till att bli ett betydelsefullt finansierings-alternativ för små och medelstora företag, vilket även möjliggjort för privatpersoner (icke-professionella investerare) att investera i denna typ av bolag genom att teckna aktier i dem. Investeringar i bolag av mindre storlek kan potentiellt ge mycket god avkastning, men är även förenade med stor risk. Dessa investeringar kan fungera som ett komplement till sedvanliga investeringar på vad som i dagligt tal kallas för ”börsen”, men investeringar i småbolag skiljer mot aktiemarknadsbolag. Värdepappersmarknaden är föremål för rigorös reglering, i syfte att värna om ett starkt investerarskydd och upprätthålla förtroendet för marknaden. Mot bakgrund härav, föreligger högt ställda krav på aktiemarknadsbolagens löpande informationsgivning. Alla inträffade händelser och uppkomna förhållanden, vilka kan tänkas ha en påverkande effekt på aktiens pris ska, i regel, så snart som möjligt delges marknaden. På så vis ges alla befintliga och potentiella aktieägare en rättvis tillgång till information om bolaget, för att ha möjlighet att fatta välavvägda investeringsbeslut. Något motsvarande investerarskydd finns inte implementerat för investeringar i onoterade aktiebolag, utan investerare har få rättsliga medel för att tillskansa sig ytterligare information som kompletterar vad som utges under och i samband med bolagsstämman. Möjligheter till detta finns, men är praktiskt komplicerade att genomdriva. Detta ger upphov till frågan om balans råder mellan ett intresse att värna om investerare, å ena sidan, och ett intresse att underlätta företagande, å andra sidan. Gällande rätt är knappast ändamålsenlig, utan ändringar krävs för att råda bot på obalansen. Investerare bör ges utvidgad rätt till informationsgivning från onoterade aktiebolag när gräsrotsfinansiering tillämpats, eller om investerarkretsen annars är spridd. Krav på löpande informationsgivning av samma brådskande karaktär som råder på aktiemarknaden är emellertid inte önskvärt, utan vore alltför betungande för företagen. Därför föreslås istället kvartalsvis regelbunden informationsgivning från onoterade aktiebolag till investerarna, med komplettering av omedelbar informationsgivning av väsentliga händelser och förhållanden. Sådan reglering skulle tillförsäkra investerare en bättre ställning och hålla dem informerade om bolagets förehavanden, samtidigt som efterlevnaden inte vore oproportionerligt betungande för bolaget och dess befattningshavare. / Crowdfunding has, during the 2010s, grown rapidly to become a meaningful alternative financing solution for small and medium-sized businesses, which has also made it possible for individuals (non-professional investors) to invest in these types of companies, by subscribing for shares. Investments in smaller sized businesses are, however, associated with greater risk. Such investments could work as a complement to more traditional investments on the stock market, but investments in small companies differ from publicly traded companies. The securities markets are subject to rigorous regulation, in order to ensure strong investor protection, as well as maintaining a high level of trust in the market. Therefore, extensive demands on the companies are in place regarding their distribution of ad hoc information. All occurring events and circumstances that might have an impact on the shares’ value, shall, subject to some exceptions, immediately be made public to the market. This will ensure that both existing and potential shareholders are given a fair access to information regarding the company, to have the possibility to make sound investment decisions. Any corresponding investor protection scheme is not implemented for investments in non-publicly traded companies. Investors have access to very few legal tools for obtaining other information than what is given during, and in connection to, the shareholders’ meeting. There are however, a handful of such possibilities, but they are practically complicated to use. This raises the question whether there is a balance at all between an interest of protecting investors on the one hand, and an interest of facilitating for entrepreneurs on the other hand. Today’s regulation is hardly appropriate, and changes are needed, in order to solve the imbalance. Investors should be given a wider right to enforce issuing of information from non-publicly traded companies that have raised capital through crowdfunding, or for other reasons have a diverse group of investors. However, similar urgency for such information, as is demanded on the stock market, is hardly necessary, as it would be far too burdensome for the companies. Therefore, quarterly information distribution is suggested, complemented with immediate information for essential occurring events and circumstances. Such regulation, would ensure investors a better position and keep them informed regarding the business’ operation, while the actions required for ensuring compliance would not be disproportionately burdensome for the company or its executives.

<p>The purpose of this essay was to overview the conflicts regarding the exhibition space (Kunsthalle) Tensta Konsthall during 2003 and 2004, in order to gain an understanding of the following: why the conflict started, if anyone exceeded their authority, how the case has been reviewed in the press, what kind of value judgements lay behind the actions and why this case has received so much attention. By studying mainly press material and political documents it has been made clear that Tensta Konsthall’s location in an ill reputed suburb of Stockholm has been the cause for its exposure to different demands and expectations compared to other similar exhibition spaces. Further the essay deals with questions raised by the conflict in the intersection of culture and politics.</p>

Agency Costs of Controlling Minority Shareholders (coauthored with Henrik Cronqvist) estimates the agency costs of controlling minority shareholders (CMSs) using a panel of Swedish listed firms. CMSs are owners who have a control stake of the firm’s votes while owning only a minority fraction of the firm’s equity. The study documents that families in control are almost exclusively CMSs through an extensive use of dual-class shares. The results show that increased ownership of votes by a controlling owner is associated with an economically and statistically significant decrease in firm value, but that the decrease in firm value is significantly larger for firms with family CMSs than for firms with financial institutions or corporations in control. This indicates that the agency costs of family CMSs are larger than the agency costs of other controlling owners.Family Ownership, Control Considerations, and Corporate Financing Decisions: An Empirical Analysis analyzes the relation between concentrated family control and firms’ choice of capital structure for a panel of Swedish listed firms. The results suggest that the capital structure choices made by firms with families in control are influenced by the controlling families’ desire to protect their control, and that the resulting capital structures are likely to increase the agency costs of family control. The Choice between Rights Offerings and Private Equity Placements (coauthored with Henrik Cronqvist) analyzes the determinants of the choice between rights offerings and private equity placements using a sample of rights offerings and private placements made by listed Swedish firms. The results indicate that control considerations explain why firms make uninsured rights offerings. The evidence also suggest that private placements, and to some extent underwritten rights offerings, are made by potentially undervalued firms in order to overcome underinvestment problems resulting from asymmetric information about firm value. Furthermore, private placements are frequently made in conjunction with the establishment of a product market relationship between purchaser and seller, which is consistent with equity ownership reducing contracting costs in new product market relationships. Why Agency Costs Explain Diversification Discounts (coauthored with Henrik Cronqvist and Peter Högfeldt) studies diversification within the real estate industry, in which firms can diversify over property types and geographical regions. Similar to previous studies, this essay documents the existence of a diversification discount. However, the major cause of the diversification discount is not diversification per se but anticipated costs due to rent dissipation in future diversifying acquisitions. Firms expected to pursue non-focusing strategies do indeed diversify more, are valued ex ante at a 20% discount over firms anticipated to follow a focusing strategy, and are predominantly family controlled. The ex ante diversification discount is, therefore, a measure of agency costs.  The Difference in Acquirer Returns between Takeovers of Public Targets and Takeovers of Private Targets shows, for a sample of Swedish takeovers, that the average acquirer abnormal return is positive and significant when the target firm is privately held but insignificant when the target firm is listed on a stock exchange. These results are robust when controlling for sample selection problems and other variables capable of explaining acquirer returns. The evidence is consistent with greater acquirer bargaining power and resolution of information asymmetries in takeovers of private targets. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2002

The purpose of this essay was to overview the conflicts regarding the exhibition space (Kunsthalle) Tensta Konsthall during 2003 and 2004, in order to gain an understanding of the following: why the conflict started, if anyone exceeded their authority, how the case has been reviewed in the press, what kind of value judgements lay behind the actions and why this case has received so much attention. By studying mainly press material and political documents it has been made clear that Tensta Konsthall’s location in an ill reputed suburb of Stockholm has been the cause for its exposure to different demands and expectations compared to other similar exhibition spaces. Further the essay deals with questions raised by the conflict in the intersection of culture and politics.

Abstract Background: Small businesses are vital for the welfare of a country. Yet, they have trou-ble obtaining external financing and these difficulties are gathered under the umbrella concept the “Financial Gap”. The most common source of fund-ing for small businesses is bank loan, why the availability of bank financing is a critical factor for their success. Today, 31% of all Swedish companies argue that they have finance problems and for half of these, the problem is to obtain a bank loan. Purpose: The purpose of the study is to describe and explain the Financial Gap as a relational concept. That is to say that the study will contribute to the understanding of the Financial Gap by focusing on the perspectives of both small businesses and banks interactively. Method: The study views the concept of the Financial Gap from a practical stand-point, assuming that it expresses its existence in the interaction between small businesses and banks. To pursue this view, the study takes on an Eth-nomethodological research approach. This approach is necessary in order to come close to and understand small businesses‟ and banks‟ everyday prac-tises. In-depth interviews are used for obtaining this deeper understanding of both parties. In addition, a questionnaire was sent out to small businesses in order to verify the information gathered in the interviews. Conclusion: On the basis of the study, the authors have developed an Interactive Model which describes their understanding of the Financial Gap. The members of small businesses and banks deal with information differently, which in turn is a result of how they approach ambiguity. When ambiguity is present, small firms settle with making decisions under uncertainty, whereas banks prefer to calculate on probabilities, why their decisions are considered being made under risk. The differences mentioned become visible in their deci-sion-making process, where small businesses act pursuant to a practical rea-soning whereas banks employ an analytical reasoning. Consequently, it leads to a clash when these two shall interact and function in a transaction as partners. The study concludes that the Financial Gap can be explained by small firms and banks speaking different languages when presenting the same reality.

<p><strong>Abstract </strong></p><p><strong>Background: </strong>Small businesses are vital for the welfare of a country. Yet, they have trou-ble obtaining external financing and these difficulties are gathered under the umbrella concept the “Financial Gap”. The most common source of fund-ing for small businesses is bank loan, why the availability of bank financing is a critical factor for their success. Today, 31% of all Swedish companies argue that they have finance problems and for half of these, the problem is to obtain a bank loan.</p><p><strong>Purpose: </strong><em>The purpose of the study is to describe and explain the Financial Gap as a relational concept. That is to say that the study will contribute to the understanding of the Financial Gap by focusing on the perspectives of both small businesses and banks interactively. </em></p><p><strong>Method: </strong>The study views the concept of the Financial Gap from a practical stand-point, assuming that it expresses its existence in the interaction between small businesses and banks. To pursue this view, the study takes on an Eth-nomethodological research approach. This approach is necessary in order to come close to and understand small businesses‟ and banks‟ everyday prac-tises. In-depth interviews are used for obtaining this deeper understanding of both parties. In addition, a questionnaire was sent out to small businesses in order to verify the information gathered in the interviews.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>On the basis of the study, the authors have developed an <em>Interactive Model </em>which describes their understanding of the Financial Gap. The members of small businesses and banks deal with information differently, which in turn is a result of how they approach ambiguity. When ambiguity is present, small firms settle with making decisions under uncertainty, whereas banks prefer to calculate on probabilities, why their decisions are considered being made under risk. The differences mentioned become visible in their deci-sion-making process, where small businesses act pursuant to a practical rea-soning whereas banks employ an analytical reasoning. Consequently, it leads to a clash when these two shall interact and function in a transaction as partners. The study concludes that the Financial Gap can be explained by small firms and banks speaking different languages when presenting the same reality.</p>

One of the main tenets of finance is diversification. Investors choose their portfolios so as to diversify away their idiosyncratic risk. In four essays included into this dissertation the implications of less than perfect diversification on investors’ performance and asset pricing are investigated. In Essay I we examine one particular instance in which diversification may play a role in a non-portfolio type of investment: the IPO. In an IPO, a set of potentially non-diversified investors – the existing shareholders – reduce their holdings of a company, listing the company and selling part of its shares. Our contribution is to show how portfolio diversification of controlling investors in private companies affects the IPO process. We demonstrate that companies sold by more diversified shareholders are less likely to be taken public, but when doing so they are priced more favourably. In Essays II and III we investigate the impact of incomplete diversification and imperfect risk-sharing on asset returns. Our argument is that the smaller shareholder base a firm has, the larger the fraction of company idiosyncratic risk on average its investors have to carry, and the higher return they would demand for that. We demonstrate that there is a negative and significant relationship between companies’ shareholder base and stock returns as well as between changes in shareholder base and stock returns. This effect is more pronounced for younger companies, but remains significant for seasoned companies as well. Applying our analysis to corporate events we demonstrate that abnormal performance following the repurchase can be partially explained by the reduction in the shareholders base resulting from repurchase. In Essay IV I investigate the motives behind one of the most puzzling examples of investors’ underdiversification – the local bias. Contrary to the predictions of classical financial theories, investors on aggregate overweight stock of proximate companies in their portfolios. I demonstrate that being placed in new community, individual investors not only soon become biased towards companies with establishments in this new locality, but they also obtain superior returns from these investments. Investing into the local stocks, therefore, is to a large degree rational. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögskolan, 2005 S. ii-vi: sammanfattning, s. 1-134: 4 uppsatser