In the wake of the guilty verdict of George Floyd’s murderer, police officer Derek Chauvin, there is hope for change in the pattern of police brutality against black people in the United States. The Hate U Give by Angie Thomas was published three years prior to George Floyd’s death, in 2017, and is a realistic fictional novel in the young adult genre that has gained attention for its relevant contribution in the debate of racism and police violence, as the fictional victim Khalil Harris, an unarmed black teenager, does not receive the same justice as George Floyd. In this essay, reader response to The Hate U Give is analysed in order to examine how it affects the opinions and worldview of the reader during and after the read. A close reading and analysis of pivotal scenes was carried out using affective stylistics, in order to interpret what the text does to the reader word-by-word, and subsequently the reader’s creation of meaning was examined and discussed. The reader’s response was then analysed with Stanley Fish’s theoretical framework of interpretive communities, groups with shared social norms and worldviews, which dictate how individuals create meaning in the first place. The analysis suggests that readers of The Hate U Give, while starting out in different, albeit to a certain extent similar, interpretive communities, will gradually align themselves with the interpretive community of Black Lives Matter through shared ideas and opinions and the increased understanding they develop when they read the novel.

Studien syftar till att få en ökad förståelse för antisemitiska hatbrott i Sverige, genom att undersöka främlingsfientlighet och rasistiska hatbrott mot personer med judisk bakgrund. Tidigare forskning konstaterar att antisemitiska hatbrott har ökat de senaste åren, dock finns det begränsat med vetenskaplig forskning om antisemitismen i Sverige, särskilt kvalitativa studier. För att besvara studiens syfte så har tio intervjuer genomförts och urvalet har skett genom kontakt med judiska organisationer. Studiens resultat visade att samtliga respondenter anser att antisemitismen har blivit mer påtaglig och mer utbredd i samhället än tidigare, vilket bidrar till att de måste hålla en låg profil för att inte bli utsatta. Det framkom även en oro inför framtiden och att kunna leva som jude. En förändring måste ske enligt respondenterna, lagstiftningen behöver justeras för att fler ska våga och orka anmäla de incidenter som inträffar. Skolor behöver mer kunskap för att agera och ta ansvar för problemet. Media behöver hitta sätt för att rapportera om konflikten i Mellanöstern utan att det påverkar enskilda judar. Alla i samhället behöver ta ansvar för att öka acceptansen för olikheter. Mer forskning behövs för att identifiera hur Sverige ska arbeta preventivt mot hatbrott för att trygga alla individer. / The study aims to create an increased understanding of anti-Semitic hate crimes in Sweden, by examining xenophobia and racist hate crimes againgst people with a Jewish background. Previous research states that anti-Semitic hate crimes have increased in recent years, however there is limited scientific research on anti-Semitism in Sweden, especially qualitative studies. To answer the purpose of the study, ten interviews were conducted and the selection was made, through contact with Jewish organizations. The results of the study showed that the participants believes that anti-Semitism has become more apparent and more widespread in society than before, which contributes to the fact that they must keep a low profile in order to not be exposed. There was also concern about the future and being able to live as a Jew. According to the participants a change needs to take place, the law needs to be adjusted so that more people dare and have the strenght to report the incidents that occurs. Schools need more knowledge to act and take responsibility for the problem. The media needs to find ways to report on the conflict in the Middle East without affecting individual Jews. Everyone in society needs to take responsibility for increasing acceptance of differences. More research is needed to identify how Sweden should work preventively against hates crimes to secure all indivuduals.a

Cancel culture is a debated phenomenon both in social and traditional media. The aim of this study is to contribute to the ongoing conversation and discussion regarding cancel culture using semi-structured interviews with informants of the generation millennials. The study depicts the informants’ options of cancel culture including both the positive and the negative consequences. In order to reach a broader sense of understanding and a better insight in how the phenomenon affects society, cancel culture is put in a context of freedom of speech. Keith Tester's theory about the social thought as well as Jürgen Habermas theory regarding public sphere is used in order to fulfil the study's aim and answer related issues. The study’s conclusion demonstrates how the millennials have in general a negative perception of cancel culture and how the phenomenon generates destructive consequences such as hate online. Apositive outcome of cancel culture is the possibility to elucidate and reform structural social problems. Furthermore, knowledge of cancel culture to get a vast understanding of the phenomenon and its effects is established in the discussion of the study. / Cancel culture är ett modernt fenomen som är omdiskuterat både i sociala och traditionella medier. Syftet med studien är att bidra till den pågående diskussionen kring cancel culture genom semistrukturerade intervjuer med informanter ur generationen millennials. Studien skildrar informanternas åsikter kring cancel culture samt dess positiva respektive negativa konsekvenser. Cancel culture sätts även i relation till yttrandefrihet för att få en bredare förståelse av fenomenets inverkan på samhället. Tidigare forskning redovisar olika perspektiv av fenomenet, som använts för att öka förståelsen av denna studie. Keith Testers teori om den sociala frågan och Jürgen Habermas teori om det publika rummet bidrar till att studien uppnår sitt syfte och besvarar frågeställningarna. Slutsatsen visar hur studiens millennials har en generellt negativ uppfattning av cancel culture och hur cancel culture genererar destruktiva konsekvenser i form av hat online. En positiv följd av cancel culture är det ges möjlighet att belysa och förändra strukturella samhällsproblem. Ytterligare kunskaper krävs för att förstå fenomenet och dess effekt i samhället, något som tas upp i diskussionsdelen.

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Hate crime and men’s violence against women are two well-recognised and highly prioritised human rights phenomena in both international and local contexts. Yet, the idea of linking the two phenomena together has received very limited support. As a series of lethal acts of Incel- violence – violence characterised by misogynistic motives and an alt-right ideology of male supremacy – have taken place globally in recent years, a discussion on the region of the human rights spectrum where gendered violence and hate crime legislation overlap is more relevant than ever. Thus, this study’s overarching purpose is to – through a comparative analysis of studies on hate crime and men’s violence against women from the United States, the United Kingdom, and Sweden – investigate the definition of hate crime and its scope in relation to gendered violence with a primary objective of identifying factors that explain why violent crimes against women motivated by misogynistic principles are rarely, if ever, recognised as hate crimes. By drawing on explanatory models of normalisation and theories on power relations, the practice of othering, the male norm and the norm of masculinity, and gendered spheres, the study sets out to evaluate a thesis that suggests that the infrequent inclusion of violent crimes with female victims in the legal and general perception of hate crime can be at least partially explained with reference to the normalisation of male violence against women, and the traditional expectation and assumption that violence against women is rooted in personal, emotional conflicts rather than impersonal hate motives. The analysis initially explores how the gender category is positioned within the legal phenomenon of hate crime by looking at a generalised criteria for hate crime, the normative view on hate crime victims, the reporting and statistics of hate crime, and arguments for and against the inclusion of a gender category in legal statues on bias crimes. The analysis then moves on to analyse three different categories of violence against women – domestic abuse, sexual assault and rape, and Incel-violence – in relation to gendered power dynamics and norms. The study’s results show that even though motives of hate can be linked to different forms of gendered violence, the traditional understanding of what constitutes a hate crime and a hate crime victim along with stereotypical assumptions on what male-on-female violence looks like, makes men’s violence against women appear incompatible with the hate crime phenomenon even in situations when cases of gendered violence actually fit into the generalised hate crime criteria that legal authorities and the public accept as the definition of a hate crime.

Hate Speech in den sozialen Medien ist heute ein stark diskutiertes und akutes Thema. Im Jahr 2016 wurde von der EU-Kommission der Verhaltenskodex zur Bekämpfung illegaler Hassreden im Internet eingeführt und 2017 in Deutschland das Netzwerkdurchsetzungsgesetz (NetzDG) gegen Hate Speech im Internet beschlossen. Im russisch-ukrainischen Konflikt (seit 2014) ist Hate Speech zu einer der grundlegenden Komponenten geworden. Diese Tatsache hat die ohnehin angespannte Situation weiter verschärft. Internet Memes lassen sich dabei als eine neue Form der Konfliktkommunikation und der Visualisierung von Hate Speech feststellen. Mit Hilfe dieses jungen multimodalen Phänomens werden Beleidigungen gegen eine soziale Gruppe oder sogar ein ganzes Volk verbreitet. Trotz der Tatsache, dass Wissenschaftler:innen in letzter Zeit der Internet-Meme-Forschung viel Beachtung schenken und dieses Phänomen sich im schnellen Entwicklungstrend befindet, sind die Rolle, Funktionen und verbal-visuellen Merkmale von multimodalen Internet-Memes im russisch-ukrainischen Konflikt bisher nicht umfassend untersucht worden. Die vorliegende Arbeit analysiert und systematisiert die bestehende Forschung im Bereich der Internet-Memes und Hate Speech und zeigt am Beispiel des Konflikts zwischen der Ukraine und Russland, wie Internet-Memes nicht nur Hate Speech visualisieren, sondern auch eine Weltanschauung formen, neue Konzepte und neue Stereotype bilden und die Alten widerspiegeln. Diese Dissertation ist zum einen als Beitrag zur methodischen Ausdifferenzierung der Hate-Speech-Memes zu verstehen, was das linguistische und interdisziplinäre Forschungsfeld weiter vorantreiben kann. Zum anderen ermöglicht sie, die Beziehungen zwischen der Ukraine und Russland sowie die Ursachen des Konflikts zu begreifen. Die in dieser Arbeit beschriebenen und analysierten verbal-visuellen Merkmale der Internet-Memes des Konflikts bilden ein Instrumentarium für die weitere Erforschung dieses relativ jungen Phänomens sowie der russisch-ukrainischen Konfrontation.:Vorwort 3 1 Einleitung 8 1.1 Problemstellung und Zielsetzung 8 1.2 Struktur der Arbeit 11 1.3 Methodik und Korpus 12 1.4 Anmerkung zu Datenschutz, Transliteration und Übersetzungen 13 2 Theoretisch-historische Hintergründe 15 2.1 Hate-Speech des Konflikts als Forschungsobjekt 15 2.1.1 Der Begriff Hate Speech 15 2.1.1.1 Linguistischer Aspekt 15 2.1.1.2 Gesetzlicher Aspekt 19 2.1.2 Hate Speech und Medien 20 2.1.3 Hate Speech und Internet 22 2.1.4 Rechtvorschriften der Ukraine und Russlands in Bezug auf Hate Speech 23 2.1.5 Klassifikation von Hate Speech 24 2.1.6 Visualisierung von Hate Speech 26 2.2 Internet-Memes als Untersuchungsgegenstand 27 2.2.1 Von Memen zu Internet-Memes 27 2.2.2 Internet-Memes 29 2.2.3 Internet-Memes-Definition 31 2.2.3.1 Kultur- und kommunikationswissenschaftliche Perspektive 31 2.2.3.2 Linguistische Perspektive 32 2.2.4 Internet-Memes als multimodale Form: Definitionsschwierigkeit 33 2.2.4.1 Internet-Memes als Sprache-Bild-Texte 34 2.2.4.2 Internet-Memes als kreolisierte Texte 35 2.2.4.3 Arbeitsdefinition für Internet-Memes 35 2.2.4.4 Merkmale von multimodalen Internet-Memes 37 2.2.5 Funktionen von Internet-Memes 39 2.2.6 Typen von Internet-Memes 41 2.2.6.1 Image-Macros 43 2.2.6.2 Demotivatoren 45 2.2.7 Internet-Memes und andere multimodale Formen: Plakat, Karikatur 46 2.2.7.1 Internet-Memes und politische Karikatur 46 2.2.7.2 Internet-Memes und politisches Plakat 47 3 Visualisierung von Hate Speech im russisch-ukrainischen Konflikt 48 3.1 Konflikt vs. Krieg 48 3.2 Internet-Memes und Kulturwissenschaftliche Linguistik 55 3.3 Identität-Sprache-Stereotyp 56 3.4 Historischer Exkurs: Auseinandersetzung der Ukraine und Russland 62 3.4.1 Sprachenpolitik und Identitätsbildung in der Ukraine nach 1990 62 3.4.2 Zerfall der Sowjetunion und Russische Identitätsbildung 68 3.4.3 Geschichtsinterpretation von verschiedenen Perioden in der Ukraine und Russland 71 3.4.4 „Euromajdan“ als Wendepunkt 81 3.5 Stereotype als Basis für Hate Speech 86 3.5.1 Ethnostereotype 88 3.5.2 Ethnostereotype von Ukrainern 89 3.5.3 Ethnostereotype von Russen 96 3.6 Hate Speech des russisch-ukrainischen Konflikts 100 3.6.1 Neologismen nach dem „Majdan“ 101 3.6.2 Arten der Bildung von Neologismen 104 3.7 Hate-Speech-Memes 106 3.7.1 Stand der Forschung 106 3.7.2 Internet-Memes als aggressive multimodale Argumentation 111 3.7.3 Internet-Memes als Propagandamittel 112 4 Empirische Untersuchungen 117 4.1 Das Korpus der Internet-Memes 117 4.2 Hate-Speech-Liste 120 4.3 Intoleranzgrad der Internet-Memes 121 4.4 Erste Untersuchung: Textextraktion 123 4.5 Zweite Untersuchung: Internet-Memes-Analyse 128 4.5.1 Klassifikation von Internet-Memes des Konflikts 131 4.5.1.1 Historische Internet-Memes 132 4.5.1.1.1 Banderovсy (бандеровцы) 132 4.5.1.1.2 Rašyzm (рашизм) 145 4.5.1.2 Ethnostereotypische Internet-Memes 153 4.5.1.2.1 Chochol (хохол) 153 4.5.1.2.2 Kacap (кацап) 164 4.5.1.2.3 Moskal᾽ (москаль) 169 4.5.1.3 Neugebildete Internet-Memes 180 4.5.1.3.1 Vatnik(i) (ватник) 180 4.5.1.3.2 Vyšivatnik(i) (вышиватник) 186 4.5.1.3.3 Kolorad(y) (колорад) 191 4.5.1.3.4 Ukrop(y) (укроп) 199 4.5.1.3.5 Ukr(y) (укр) 205 4.5.1.3.6 Majdaun(y) (майдаун) 215 4.5.1.3.7 Daunbas (даунбас) 219 4.5.1.3.8 Lugandon (лугандон) 224 4.5.1.3.9 Federast(y) (федeраст) 230 4.6 Verbal-visuelle Besonderheiten der Hate-Speech-Memes des Konflikts 235 5 Schlussbetrachtungen und Ausblick 279 Literatur 283 Abbildungsverzeichnis 320 Tabellenverzeichnis 325 Akürzungsverzeichnis 326 Analysierte Internet-Memes (Beschreibung und Quelle) 327 Analysierte Internet-Memes (Bilder) 349

The Pulse Nightclub Tragedy in Orlando shocked the nation, after a gunman who identified as being Muslim walked in to a gay nightclub and gunned down 49 people and injured 53 more. In addition to the LGBTQ+ community being targeted, the Latinx community had been targeted as well, considering it was Latin night. With many of those affected being of traditional college age, local colleges and universities took action to offer support. Focusing on the Pulse shooting, I explored the ways in which higher education institutions offered support after this tragedy occurred, while reviewing other tragedies and the responses by local colleges and universities. By using a document study of newspapers, institutional publications, and literature, I looked for information on how students were supported and noted best practices by the institutions which offered the most support to minority student groups. Additionally, I examined the themes and patterns regarding inclusion and what tactics were helpful for higher education institutions that could be implemented after a tragedy.

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[pt] A Liberdade de Expressão é um direito essencial e amplamente reconhecido em uma sociedade democrática. Entretanto, o consenso sobre os limites da estimada liberdade está longe de ser alcançado, principalmente no que tange a ofensa religiosa, por envolver crenças e valores tidos como sagrados. A partir da constatação de que o estabelecimento de limites precisos para a ofensa religiosa é uma questão especialmente delicada em países cuja população é muito religiosa - como é o caso do Brasil -, ressalta-se a importância do presente trabalho. O primeiro desafio é explorar questões que rondam a própria conceituação do discurso de ódio: estaria uma ofensa relacionada à crença, e não propriamente à pessoa ou grupo de pessoas, apta a afetar a dignidade dos ofendidos? A quem cabe decidir quais casos serão ou não acobertados pelo direito à livre expressão? A partir da análise de doutrina e jurisprudência estrangeira, este trabalho propõe, principalmente, que decisões judiciais envolvendo discursos de ódio devem ser orientadas por critérios específicos que possam auxiliar o magistrado no procedimento decisório. Por isso, é essencial refletir sobre a importância dos standards internacionais e sua possível aplicação no sistema brasileiro. / [en] Freedom of Expression is an essential right, widely recognized in a democratic society. However, there is no consensus on the limits of the esteemed freedom, especially in regard to religious offense, because it involves beliefs and values regarded as sacred. Based on the fact that the establishment of precise limits for religious offense is an especially delicate issue in countries with a very religious population - as is the case of Brazil -, the importance of this Thesis is emphasized. The first challenge is to explore issues that involve the conceptualization of hate speech: would it be an offense related to belief, and not to the person or group of people, capable of affecting the dignity of the offended? Who should decide which cases will be covered by the freedom of speech? From the analysis of foreign doctrine and jurisprudence, this Master s Thesis proposes, mainly, that judicial decisions involving hate speech should be guided by specific criteria that may assist the magistrate in the decision making process. Therefore, it is essential to reflect on the importance of international standards and their possible application in the Brazilian system.

As our lives become more and more digital, our exposure to certain phenomena increases, one of which is hate speech. Thus, automatic hate speech identification is needed. This thesis explores three strategies for hate speech detection for cross­-domain scenarios: using a model trained on annotated data for a previous domain, a model trained on data from a novel methodology of automatic data derivation (with cross­-domain scenarios in mind), and using ChatGPT as a domain-­agnostic classifier. Results showed that cross-­domain scenarios remain a challenge for hate speech detection, results which are discussed out of both technical and ethical considera­tions. / I takt med att våra liv blir allt mer digitala ökar vår exponering för vissa fenomen, varav ett är näthat. Därför behövs automatisk identifikation av näthat. Denna uppsats utforskar tre strategier för att upptäcka hatretorik för korsdomänscenarion: att använda inferenserna av en modell trä­nad på annoterad data för en tidigare domän, att använda inferenserna av en modell tränad på data från en ny metodologi för automatisk dataderivatisering som föreslås (för denna avhandling), samt att använda ChatGPT som klassifierare. Resultaten visade att korsdomänscenarion fort­farande utgör en utmaning för upptäckt av näthat, resultat som diskuteras utifrån både tekniska och etiska överväganden.