本論文旨在以民族誌研究方法觀察美國國際交流協會(CIEE)留學生的華語習得期間之文化適應。身為一位CIEE的校友，以及目前在國立政治大學就讀華語文教學碩士學程，並擔任CIEE 語言助理，作者想要透過CIEE美國學生在台灣的經驗來觀察他們學習華語的過程。 本研究提出，美國學生在台灣留學時，同常會經過四種文化適應的發展過程:(1)期待(2)文化衝擊 (3)迷失 (4)適應。研究結果顯示，雖然大部分的人都覺得東亞洲美國學生不可能經驗文化衝擊, 本研究發現正因為他們缺乏了文化衝擊之意識, 使他們在華語習得習期間無法順利適應文化以及學習語言。因此為了有效的幫助華語為第二語言學生學習華語，作者建議學生與老師應該增加文化衝擊之意識。 / This qualitative research study investigates exchange students from the United States (America) in the program of the Council on International Educational Exchange (CIEE), in terms of their experiences during their process of acculturation while acquiring Chinese Mandarin language skills. Previously as a study abroad program student in National Chengchi University, Taipei, and currently as a graduate student in Teaching Chinese as a Second Language Master’s Program, and Language Coordinator of CIEE, (a study abroad program on the same campus), the author proposes to do a case study on the program’s students. The purpose is to understand the effects of cultural experience in second language acquisition by American students through ethnographic methods. The author proposes that in order to effectively acquire Chinese Mandarin language, it could be important for tracking American students’ acculturation process of 1. Anticipation, 2. Cultural Shock, 3. Disorientation, and 4. Adaptation. It is observed that although most people assume that East-Asian Americans experience less culture shock due to their Asian heritage, the study shows that their lack of ‘culture shock awareness’ in fact puts them at a disadvantage, which delays their adaptation, and impedes upon their success in Mandarin language training. The study concludes that decreasing social distance and promoting social interaction through acculturation in classrooms may be effective methods for both East-Asian and non-East-Asian American students to become successful in acquiring Chinese Mandarin language. Thus, it is suggested that students and teachers should increase their level of culture shock awareness in the study abroad context in order to assist Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners.

本篇研究的目的是要去比較中文跟英文小孩的誘發過度泛化現象的不同之處。誘發過度泛化現象指的是小孩子因為受到之前誘發過的字的影響進而造成對物品過度泛化現象的情況而稱之。Gershkoff-Stowe et al. (2006) 認為Dell (1986) 提出的擴散激活機制 (spreading activation mechanisms) 可用來解釋小孩的三種泛化錯誤類型: 類別錯誤 (category errors) 、語用錯誤 (pragmatic errors) 跟提取錯誤 (retrieval errors)，此三種泛化錯誤的基底機制應該都是同樣的。另外，他們也認為最近激活跟形狀的類似對小孩的命名應該都扮演了很重要的角色。年紀較大的小孩也應該會擁有比較成熟的心理詞彙所以會比起年紀較小的小孩比較不容易受到之前提取過的字的影響。因為中文跟英文心理詞彙的不同，我們想去檢視是否一樣的理論也可套用在中文小孩身上。實驗方法沿用了Gershkoff-Stowe et al. (2006)的相同實驗法，做了與他相同的兩個實驗。第一個實驗是熟悉物與不熟悉物的命名，兩歲小孩要做六次的試驗，然後我們是用三張圖片做為誘發圖片，然後請小孩去命名一個真實的物品。第二個實驗是虛構物品命名，我們在這個實驗裡比較兩歲小孩跟四歲小孩的不同表現。實驗過程跟實驗一是一樣的，只是實驗二是看虛構物品不是真實物品，且有八個試驗機會而不是六個。結果顯示有一個跟英文大致上類似的結果。然而我們仍有發現一些不同之處。第一，我們發現熟悉物在中文裡比起英文似乎有更強的力量。第二個則是兩個語言不同的構詞法可能會對於比較成熟的心理詞彙造成不一樣的誘發方式。 / This purpose of this study is to compare the difference of priming overextension phenomena between Mandarin Chinese children and English children. Priming overextension means that children overextend some words due to the effects of the previously primed words. Gershkoff-Stowe et al. (2006) found that spreading activation mechanisms (Dell, 1986) should be the underlying mechanisms of three types of children’s overextension errors, i.e., category errors, pragmatic errors, and retrieval errors. Moreover, they thought that recent activation and perceptual similarity both play an important role on children’s object naming. Besides, older children should have a more mature mental lexicon and thus less susceptible to previously retrieved words than younger children. Due to the difference of the lexicon networks between Mandarin Chinese and English, we want to examine whether the same theory also could apply to Mandarin children. Two experiments which followed Gershkoff-Stowe et al. (2006) were conducted. The first one was familiar or unfamiliar object naming. 2-year-old Children underwent six trials and were primed by three pictures and then were asked to name a real object. The second experiment was novel object naming. We compared the performances of children aged 2 and aged 4 together. The procedure was the same as the experiment 1 despite the fact that children in experiment 2 named novel objects rather than real ones and they underwent 8 trials rather than six. And results showed a generally similar finding with English. However, there are still something different between these two languages. First, we found that familiar objects should have stronger strengths in Mandarin than in English. Second, different morphology in two languages may result in different priming way for more mature mental lexicons.

published_or_final_version / Education / Master / Master of Education

Un animal qui s’approvisionne en groupe peut rechercher soi-même sa nourriture (tactique producteur) ou tenter de se joindre à des parcelles déjà découvertes par un autre individu (tactique chapardeur). Bien que les modèles de jeu producteur-chapardeur partent du principe que les gains moyens à l’équilibre associés à chacune de ces tactiques sont égaux et ne dépendent pas des caractéristiques des individus, de plus en plus d’études démontrent que le gain de chaque tactique est influencé par certaines caractéristiques phénotypiques (agressivité, capacités d’apprentissage,…). Dans cette étude, nous nous intéressons aux effets de la testostérone sur le choix des tactiques d’approvisionnement chez les mâles de diamant mandarin (Taeniopygia guttata). La testostérone est connue pour influencer le développement du cerveau et l’agressivité, nous avons donc testé les effets d’une exposition prénatale à la testostérone ainsi que durant l’âge adulte sur le choix des tactiques d’approvisionnement lorsque la nourriture est cryptique ou défendable. Nous avons réalisé deux expériences : nous avons tout d’abord utilisé la longueur du tarse ainsi que la différence entre les longueurs des doigts 2 et 4 comme des indicateurs de l’exposition prénatale à la testostérone puis testé si ces différences morphologiques se traduisent par des différences dans le choix des tactiques dans une condition défendable et une condition cryptique. Nous avons trouvé que le choix des tactiques chez les diamants mandarins était limité par le phénotype. Une exposition précoce à la testostérone au cours du développement prénatal pourrait donc être la cause d’au moins une part de la variation observée dans le choix des tactiques d’approvisionnement. Ensuite, nous avons manipulé le taux de testostérone plasmatique chez des mâles adultes grâce à des implants hormonaux sous-cutanés puis comparé le comportement des individus lorsqu’ils portaient un implant hormonal et un implant contrôle et ce, dans chacune des deux conditions d’approvisionnement. Nous n’avons mis en évidence aucun effet du taux de testostérone plasmatique sur le choix des tactiques à l’âge adulte. Nos résultats sont en accord avec l’hypothèse que le choix des tactiques d’approvisionnement peut être influencé par les hormones. Notre conclusion est que les hormones stéroïdiennes peut affecter le choix des tactiques via l’existence d’effets maternels dans le jeu producteur-chapardeur. / An animal foraging in groups can search for its own food (producer tactic) or try to join food patches previously discovered by another group member (scrounger tactic). Although producer-scrounger game models assume that the payoffs associated with both tactic are equal at equilibrium and so do not depend on individual characteristics, there is recent evidence that tactic choice is constrained by certain phenotypical traits (aggressivity, learning abilities…). In this study, we examined the effect of testosterone on tactic use in male zebra finches (Taeniopygia guttata). Because testosterone is known to affect both brain development and aggressiveness, we tested whether differences in testosterone exposure either during development or in adulthood had an effect on producer-scrounger tactic use, when food was cryptic or defendable. First, we measured the tarsus length and the distance between the end of the fourth and the end of the second digit as proxies of prenatal exposure to testosterone, and tested whether they were correlated with foraging tactic use under both conditions. We found that tactic choice in zebra finches is phenotypically constrained. We suggest that early exposure to sex hormones during the embryonic period could be responsible for at least a part of the variation in tactic choice. Second, we manipulated the circulating level of testosterone in adult male zebra finches using subcutaneous testosterone implants, and compared the behavior of individuals when they had either a control implant or a testosterone implant. This time we found no effect of plasmatic level of testosterone on tactic choice. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that tactic choice in zebra finches could be mediated by hormones. Our finding that steroid hormones can affect tactic use provides evidence for maternal effects in producer-scrounger games.

Mémoire numérisé par la Division de la gestion de documents et des archives de l'Université de Montréal

在全球化的趨勢下，外語教學所強調的交際能力不再侷限於語言形式的相關技能，而是透過對文化的分析解釋，幫助學習者獲得更全面的溝通能力。文學作品透過各層面的文學想像，幫助學習者意識到實際交際的複雜性、模糊性。而文學作為現實生活的反映，往往會引起不同背景的學習者對不同文化與文明之間的共鳴，藉此了解跨文化交際間雙方對所處的社會現實不同的理解。 魯迅的小說作品刻畫出中國人的民族性格，是中國文化的可貴資產。他筆下的人物、歷史意蘊、文化色彩等，正好為學習者提供相應的語境，幫助學習者自作品中的社會交往符號和常規了解另一個社會的文化群體。然而目前華語文教學界在理論研究上對中國現代文學課程缺乏足夠的重視，故本研究旨在探討魯迅小說於文化課程上之應用。 本文採質的研究法，探討文學與文化於華語文教學上之運用，並以〈孔乙己〉、〈祝福〉、〈阿Q正傳〉三篇小說為討論範圍。文化課程實踐將以〈祝福〉為主，進行試驗教學，並根據其教學結果評估，適當修正〈孔乙己〉、〈阿Q正傳〉之教案。針對上述提及的魯迅文化觀之分析，本論文將從兩方面觀照：一、以魯迅的三篇小說為範圍，論述魯迅所批評的中國文化觀，並闡釋魯迅小說所傳達的思想內容。二、探討一九一九至一九七六年後文藝批評者對魯迅的評價及研究。 根據研究結果，研究結論有二：一、魯迅小說著作是提升華語文學習者之文化意識的重要素材；二、學習者能主動參與以魯迅小說為主題而設計的文化討論。最後，研究者根據研究結果提出相關建議：一、語言學習者的交際能力可能受限於目標語的文化知識。故為了幫助在台學習華語的外籍生獲得更全面的交際能力，結合台灣文學以及其背後的民俗意義於文化教學中，勢必能提高學生對文化的學習動機；二、語言作為一種符號系統，在編碼和解碼的過程中能反映某種文化意義，故結合文學的語言形式和文化內容設計閱讀課程是必要的。 / With the trend of globalization, communicative competence in foreign language education requires not only the goal of communicative efficiency but the development of culture awareness. In other words, it is not sufficient for learners to know how to communicate meanings but to understand the practice of meaning making itself. Literary texts are products that reflect different aspects of society. For it is through literature, serving as cultural documents, that learners can sense the complexity and ambiguity in norms of interaction in cross-cultural situations, and thus to be sympathetic to a different country and culture. Lu Xun’s novels, analyzing specific “Chinese national characteristics”, had a great impact on how modern China looks in the past. Through the historical background, emotional resonances and moral imaginings embodied in Lu Xun’s novels, learners are able to gain a deeper understanding of Chinese culture. However, literature has not been given much emphasis in the TCSL classroom. As a result, the purpose of the thesis is to explore Lu Xun’s perspective on Chinese culture and to apply its results to the practical use of teaching Chinese. A qualitative research method was employed to analyze Lu Xun’s novels and to exploit the novel called “New Year’s Sacrifice” in the classroom. In detail, the present thesis focuses on two discussions: (1) Analyzing Lu Xun’s novels: The underlying value orientations presented in “Kong Yiji”, ”The True Story of Ah Q “ and “New Year’s Sacrifice “will be discussed. (2) Analyzing critical appraisals of Lu Xun’s work in order to figure out how Lu Xun became one of the most prominent authors of modern China: Critics’ views in 1919 to the years after 1976 will be examined. Results of the study indicate that the multiple layers of cultural meaning in Lu Xun’s novels can raise learners’ culture awareness as well as motivate learners to discover the underlying concept of culture. Lastly, the suggestions developed from the discussions are provided as follows: (1) Negotiation of meaning often flounders because of a lack of understanding and trust of how to participate in different discourse environments. Thus, Taiwanese literature can be included in culture teaching for students who are learning Chinese in Taiwan. Through the cultural context provided in Taiwanese literature, students are able to acquire a much more sophisticated competence in the manipulation of symbolic systems and also to enhance positive attitudes toward Taiwanese culture group. (2) The interaction between language and culture should be considered as a substantial part of culturally oriented language courses.

Souvent, lorsque les locuteurs d'une langue n'ont pas accès à l'item conventionnel pour étiqueter un objet ou un événement, ils étendent, consciemment ou inconsciemment, le sens d'un autre item lexical disponible. Ce phénomène se produit particulièrement au cours de la phase d'acquisition lexicale des jeunes enfants. Lorsqu'une telle sur-extension sémantique va au-delà de la catégorie d'objet ou d'événement conventionnellement dénotée par l'item lexical produit, il s'agit d'une sur-extension catégorielle et l'énoncé produit est d'allure métaphorique: par exemple, " déshabiller la pomme " pour l'action peler une pomme est un énoncé d'allure métaphorique. Tout d'abord, cette thèse a permis de développer SLAM, un système de résolution lexicale automatique des métaphores produites en situation de manque du mot. SLAM s'appuie, d'une part, sur l'analyse syntaxique de grands corpus et, d'autre part, sur la structure Petit Monde Hiérarchique des réseaux lexicaux de synonymie. Par exemple, à partir des énoncés " elle déshabille* la pomme " ou " les bras* de l'arbre ", SLAM permet d'obtenir les interprétations suivantes: respectivement, " elle pèle une pomme " et " les branches de l'arbre ".Ensuite, cette thèse a permis d'étudier spécifiquement la dynamique d'acquisition du lexique des verbes qui se stabilise après celui des noms. D'une part, des outils méthodologiques pour l'étude inter-linguistique de la dynamique d'acquisition du lexique des verbes ont été élaborés: (a) un cadre méthodologique pour la construction de procédures d'identification des sur-extensions sémantiques catégorielles des verbes; (b) une méthodologie pour le repérage des stimuli visuels d'action sans biais culturel. D'autre part, les liens entre la structure des réseaux lexicaux de synonymie et la dynamique d'acquisition du lexique des verbes en français et en mandarin ont été mis au jour. Après avoir pointé des différences dans la dynamique d'acquisition du lexique des verbes par les jeunes enfants natifs du français et du mandarin, cette étude a servi à construire le score REFLEX, mesure du degré d'acquisition du lexique des verbes, qui permet de catégoriser automatiquement les jeunes enfants vs adultes en français et en mandarin.

許多學者曾探討語言與音樂的互動關係。本研究則是將此議題延伸討論至漢語聖經經文入樂。本文漢語聖詩的歌詞皆截取自聖經經文，旋律的部份則是由牟維華(2007)所編。本篇主要包含了語料庫以及優選理論分析。語料庫的設置是用以觀察音節與音符的關連性、語言與音樂的邊界，以及輕聲的節奏。而優選理論分析則是藉著制約排序選出優選輸出值。本文聖詩可以兩種方式避免音符沒有對應到歌詞的現象，即一個音節對入多個音符，以及插入重複的歌詞。此兩種不同變異體可透過並存音韻(cophonology)的次語法，也就是Dep-σ 及Univormity-SM兩個制約的重新排序來解釋。由 Align-R(Long,IP)、Align-L (T, XP) 及 Align-R (T, IP) 三種制約排序，可預測出三連音邊界與歌詞的對應關係。Rhythm-N和Align-R (Long, IP) 兩個制約的排序，則可預測輕聲字的節奏長短。本研究發現音樂可被調整，以容納音節節奏。語言亦會被音樂影響，如此以符合樂譜的模組(template)。 / Scholars have discussed the interaction between language and music. This study investigates this issue in Chinese biblical hymns. The lyrics of Chinese biblical hymn discussed in this paper are from biblical verses while the melodies are composed by Mou (2007). This paper includes corpus-based and Optimality Theory analysis. Corpus is constructed to observe the phenomena of syllable-note association, language and music boundaries, and the rhythm of neutral tone syllables. In terms of Optimality Theory, the optimal output of the hymn is governed by a set of constraints. Both linking one syllable to multiple notes and inserting repeated lyrics to the hymns can avoid notes from not linking to any lyric. These two variations can be accounted for by re-ranking Dep-σ and Univormity-SM in Cophonology Theory. The constraint ranking of Align-R (Long, IP), Align-L (T, XP) and Align-R (T, IP) can predict the interaction between the tiercet boundary and lyrics. The ranking of Rhythm-N and Align-R (Long, IP) determines the rhythm of neutral tone syllables. To conclude, this study has found that music can be modified to accommodate syllable rhythm. Language can also be influenced by music to satisfy the music template.

This experimental study investigates the second language acquisition of the four Mandarin aspect markers -le, -guo, -zhe, and zai- by native Swedish university students enrolled in Chinese language courses in Sweden. The main points of inquiry are acquisition order, the Aspect Hypothesis, the Distributional Bias Hypothesis, and the Prototype Model. The study contains a cross-sectional study and a longitudinal study. Both written and spoken data are collected. The tasks in the cross-sectional study include film-retelling, picture-retelling, grammaticality judgment, fill-in-the-blank questions and comprehension. The longitudinal study includes written data produced by seven students in their tri-monthly journal. The study shows that perfective markers are produced before imperfective markers. The results of the experiments are consistent with the Aspect Hypothesis. The Distributional Bias Hypothesis can account for most of the Aspect Hypothesis but there are exceptions that indicate that other factors could also influence the acquisition process, such as L1 transfer. The Prototype Model cannot be conclusively proven. Apart from contributing to second-language acquisition theo-ries on cross-linguistic tense-aspect morphology, this study can provide empirical evidence with significant pedagogical implications for the second-language learning classroom.

In this thesis I provide a business plan for the establishment of a Chinese Language Institute in the city of Querétaro, México. The city of Querétaro is and advantageous location for the operations of this institute. It is highly developed and ranked the most innovative in the country for its industry and education, which is reflected in its population’s levels of education, professional capabilities and income. The city is also attractive to foreign investment for the establishment of their operations, and more recently, attracting interest from Asian corporations. With competitive prices, academic excellence and comprehensive materials, we expect to serve the population in Queretaro ranging of ages between 3 and 45. We will deliver quality services with mandarin native-speaking professors who will additional have a background and training in teaching and languages. This will be our main differentiator. We believe this will provide students of all ages with the tools and preparation to be competitive in the global panorama in which we live today.