M. Tech. (Department of Accountancy, Faculty of Management Sciences), Vaal University of Technology. / The minibus taxi industry in South Africa is one of the biggest, fastest growing, and riskiest industries in the world. The minibus taxi industry contributes to the economy by creating over 600,000 jobs, providing fast and cheap transport and fighting poverty and unemployment. However, the recent COVID 19 pandemia restrictions has caused a sudden and movement of economic growth and competition has forced the minibus taxi industry to be competitive in all aspects. This has resulted in intense competition for minibus taxi owners. Minibus taxi owners are constantly in rivalry amongst themselves and with other public road transport providers. In early 1988, the minibus taxi industry started seeing an influx in the number of new minibus taxis and minibus owners. This influx created problems of competition within the industry and among minibus taxi owners. Due to the importance of this industry, this research study investigated whether minibus taxi owners in the Emfuleni Local Municipality apply selected management accounting principles in the management of their minibus taxi businesses. Selected management accounting principles in this study refers to cost volume profit analysis, cost structure, and budgeting. This research study followed a quantitative research design and a questionnaire was used to collect primary data from a census of 500 minibus taxi owners from the following five associations: Get Ahead Taxi Association (GATA), Vaal National Taxi Association (VNTA), Vanderbijlpark Taxi Association (VTA), Sharpeville to Vereeniging and Vanderbijlpark Taxi Association (SVVTA) and Civic Centre Taxi Association (CCTA) operating in the Emfuleni Local Municipality. Using descriptive statistical analysis to present the findings, the study used Statistical Package for Social Sciences Version 27. Findings obtained using an online questionnaire and printed questionnaire distributed revealed a lack of management accounting principles application among these minibus taxi owners. Furthermore, the minibus taxi owners do not apply cost volume profit analysis and most do not use budgets. However, it was found that some minibus taxi owners apply very basic cash budgeting through a pen-on-paper approach. It was also found that minibus taxi owners understand the application of cost structures. This research study recommends that minibus taxi owners should be offered training by skills sectors to apply the selected management accounting principles. The limitations of this research study included that the census was geogracial restrictions, level of education, and corona virus restrictions. Despite these limitations, the research study was able to fulfil its main objective by determining that majority of minibus taxi owners do not apply the selected management accounting principles.

Bostadsbristen är ett allvarligt problem i Sverige och bostadsmarknaden är långt ifrån välfungerande. År 2015 bedömde Boverket att 183 av landets 290 kommuner hade ett underskott på bostäder. 80 kommuner tyckte sig ha en balans mellan bostadssökande och antalet lediga bostäder medan resterande 27 kommuner fann ett överskott på bostäder. Att tilläga är att 82 procent av befolkningen bor i de 183 kommuner som berörs av underskott.Den förra regeringen anser att om vi bättre nyttjar de redan befintliga bostäderna och skapar ett flexibelt utbud av lägenheter genom andrahandsupplåtelse samt gör outnyttjade bostäder tillgängliga på marknaden kan man hjälpa många människor som söker bostad.Syftet med denna uppsats är att utreda, analysera och diskutera varför bedömningen gällande de skäl som krävs för tillstånd till andrahandsuthyrning skiljer sig åt mellan de två nyttjanderättsformerna, bostadsrätt och hyresrätt. Även klargöra vilka skäl som lagstiftare anser vara tillräckliga vid en tillståndsprövning gällande andrahandsupplåtelse. När utredning av eventuella skillnader i skäl för upplåtelse i andra hand är klar besvaras och diskuteras följande frågeställning: Varför är BRLs regler generösare än hyreslagens regler?I uppsatsen undersöks olika bestämmelser för att få en djupare insikt i gällande rätt. Förarbeten, rättspraxis och doktrin har legat till grund för tolkning av lagar och för att ge läsaren förståelse för den praktiska tillämpningen av valda lagrum.Av det insamlade materialet har det framkommit, att det i första hand är den enskilda bostadsrättsföreningen eller hyresvärden som beslutar vilka skäl som anses tillräckliga för tillstånd till en andrahandsupplåtelse. Reglerna i BRL är generösare än motsvarande regler i hyreslagen då bostadsrättshavaren inte behöver åberopa samma tyngd i sina skäl för uthyrningen som en förstahandshyresgäst. Detta på grund av det ekonomiska intresse och uppbundna kapital som bostadsrättshavaren har i sin bostad vilket en förstahandshyresgäst saknar. Det är enligt oss anledningar till varför BRLs syn på godtagbara skäl är generösare än motsvarande regler i hyreslagen. / The housing shortage is a serious problem in Sweden and the housing market is ineffective and greatly hampered. In 2015 the national board of housing, building and planning in Sweden named Boverket, estimated that 183 of the country’s 290 municipalities had a shortage of housing. 80 of the municipalities showed a balance between housing applicants and the number of vacant homes, while remaining 27 municipalities showed a surplus of housing. Important to note is that 82 percent of the population reside in the municipalities affected by the shortage.The previous government believes that by better utilizing existing dwellings and creating a flexible supply of apartments by sublease as well as making unused homes available to the market they can help a lot of people in their search for a home.The purpose of this essay is to investigate, analyze and discuss why there are differences between two forms of tenancies, owner-occupied apartments and rental units, with respect to the reasons thought to be sufficient in the assessment of obtaining permission to sublease. After clarifying differences regarding reasons for sublease, the following question is answered: Why is the law concerning owner-occupied apartments more generous than the law regarding rental units?Various regulations are examined in the essay to create a deeper understanding of the law. Travaux préparatoires, case law and jurisprudence has formed the basis for the interpretation of the statutes and to provide the reader with a deeper understanding of the practical use of selected section of the law.The collected material has illustrated that it is primarily the individual co-operative housing association or landlord who decides what reasons are sufficient to permit a sublease. The rules considering owner-occupied apartments are more generous than the corresponding law for rental units, since the owner of a co-operative apartment does not need to invoke the same substance in their reasons for renting as primary tenant because of their financial interest which a tenant lacks. According to us this is the main reason why the view on acceptable grounds for sublease regarding owner-occupied apartments are more generous than the corresponding laws applied on rental units.

Bakgrund: Hela 2000-talet har gått präglats av en intensiv digitalisering. Detta har påverkatmånga branscher. Fastighetsmäklarbranschen har haft en trög utveckling relativt till singrannbransch, finansbranschen. Tidigt under 2000-talet dök flertalet verksamheter som hadevisionen att digitalisera mäklarbranschen ytterligare och göra den mer effektiv. Dessa aktörerkan ha varit alldeles för tidigt ute på bollen. De inte har utvecklats och vuxit som mångatrodde. Marknaden verkade inte vara redo för en mer digital bostadsaffär. Den analogamäklaren har således vuxit och fler människor i Sverige väljer att anlita en när man ska säljasin bostad. Syfte: Studiens syfte är att undersöka om det finns ett behov för traditionellafastighetsmäklarföretag att börja erbjuda en avskalad mäklartjänst likt de digitala mäklarnastjänst i syfte att möte en eventuell konkurrens från dessa aktörer. Metod: Studien utgår från en blandning av en kvalitativ och kvantitativ studie utifrån endeduktiv ansats. Det vill säga att studien från den sekundära data som har samlats in i deinledande avsnitten när det empiriska resultatet, den primära data, samlades in. Denna databestår av svar från intervjuer som gjordes via telefon som sedan analyserades och ställdes motden sekundära data för att bekräfta eller säga emot den. Detta är således en komparativ metod. Resultat och slutsats: Resultaten pekar mot att det i dagsläget inte är nödvändigt förtraditionella fastighetsmäklarföretag att hitta snabba lösningar för att möta konkurrensen fråndigitala mäklare. Detta eftersom de digitala mäklarföretagen inte är definitiva konkurrenter,utan endast substitut till den traditionella mäklartjänsten. Däremot visar resultaten att de precisnämnda resultaten inte är något för traditionella mäklare att luta sig tillbaka på. Det är såledesendast en tidsfråga innan mäklarbranschen blir mer digitaliserad och kommer kräva att allaaktörer anpassar sig. Studiens bidrag: Studien ger en djupare förståelse över de digitala mäklarnas situation ochdess konkurrenskraft. Studien har bidragit med att ge en inblick i hur mäklartjänsten kommerbehöva utvecklas och vad som kommer att behövas för att det ska bli en lyckad mäklartjänstmed digitala spår. Framtida forskning: Ett förslag på framtida forskning i ämnet är att undersöka vad somkommer krävas av den mer digitala mäklartjänsten för att lyckas inge tryggheten som är såviktig för konsumenterna. Ett annat förslag är att undersöka detta på internationell nivå, dådenna studie har avgränsats till den svenska mäklarbranschen. / Background: During the 2000s the world has undergone an intensive digitalization. However,the real estate industry has developed slowly relative to the financial industry. In the early2000s, several digital brokerage firms appeared with the goal to further digitalize the Swedishreal estate industry. These firms may have been too early because the industry did not seemmature enough. The industry did not seem ready for a more digital housing transaction. Theanalogue broker has thus grown and more people in Sweden choose to hire one when sellingtheir home. Aim: The purpose of the study is to investigate whether there’s a need for traditional realestate companies to start offering a stripped-down brokerage service like the digital brokers’service, in order to meet any competition from the digital brokers. Method: The study is based on a mixture of a qualitative and a quantitative study based on adeductive approach. That is, the collected empirical results, the primary data, where based onthe secondary data that has been collected in the introductory sections. The primary dataconsists of responses from interviews conducted by telephone which were then analyzed andset against the secondary data confirm or contradict it. This is thus a comparative method. Result and conclusion: The results indicate that it is currently not necessary for traditionalreal estate companies to find quick solutions to meet the competition from digital brokers.This is because digital brokerage firms are not definitive competitors, but only substitutes forthe traditional brokerage service. However, the results show that the just mentioned results arenot something for traditional brokerage to lean on. It is thus only a matter of time before thebrokerage industry becomes more digital and will require all firms to adapt. Contribution of the thesis: The study provides a deeper understanding of the situation of thedigital broker and its competitiveness. The study has helped to provide an insight into how thebrokerage service will need to be developed and what will be needed for it to be a successfulbrokerage service a digital track. Future research: A proposal for future research in the subject is to investigate what will berequired of the more digital brokerage service in order to succeed in providing the security thatis so important to consumers. Another proposal is to investigate this at an international level,as this study has been limited to the Swedish brokerage industry.

Med tanke på den ökande oron som finns kring brottslighet och otrygghet är det viktigt att reflektera över vilka som bär ansvaret för att främja den kollektiva tryggheten. Tidigare forskning visar bland annat att brottslighet eller rädslan för att brott ska inträffa påverkar grannskapet och den psykiska hälsan på ett negativt sätt. Forskning visar även att genom samverkan mellan olika aktörer såsom polis, fastighetsägare och allmänhet, kan trygghetssatsningar bidra till ökad upplevd trygghet.    Denna studie ämnar bidra till forskningen om hur fastighetsägaren, tillsammans med hyresgästernas engagemang, kan påverka den positiva utvecklingen i ett bostadsområde och bidra till ett tryggare samhälle för bostadshyresgäster. Studien har en kvalitativ ansats och har kombinerat en fallstudie i Södra Sofielund/Seved med semistrukturerade intervjuer med nyckelpersoner inom fastighetsbranschen i aktuellt område. Syftet med studien är att undersöka på vilket sätt fastighetsägare samarbetar med hyresgäster i ett bostadsområde för att öka den upplevda tryggheten.    Resultatet visade att respondenterna har olika syn på hur mycket hyresgästerna kan involveras i trygghetsarbetet. Dock är majoriteten av respondenterna överens om att det behövs engagemang och trygghetsinsatser för att skapa sammanhållning och möjligheter för sociala interaktioner i området. För att möjliggöra för dessa insatser behövs dessutom samverkan, inte bara med de boende, utan med olika samhällsaktörer för att bekämpa effekterna av rädslan för brott. / Considering the increasing concern surrounding crime and insecurity, it is important to reflect on who bears responsibility for promoting collective security. Previous research indicates, among other things, that crime or the fear of crime negatively impacts neighborhoods and mental health. Research also shows that through collaboration among various societal stakeholders, including the police, property owners and the public, security initiatives can contribute to an increased sense of security.   This study aims to contribute to the research on how property owners, together with the engagement of tenants, can influence the positive development in a residential area and contribute to a safer society for residential tenants. The study has a qualitative approach and has combined a case study in Södra Sofielund/Seved with semi-structured interviews with key figures in the real estate industry in the relevant area. The purpose of the study is to examine how property owners collaborate with tenants in a residential area to enhance perceived security.   The results indicate that respondents have different views on the extent to which tenants can be involved in security work. However, the majority of respondents agree that involvement and security efforts are needed to create a sense of community and opportunities for social interactions in the area. Furthermore, to enable these efforts, collaboration is required not only with residents but also with various societal actors to combat the effects of the fear of crime.

L’hypothèque légale de la construction est le principal mécanisme de protection des créances des intervenants de l’industrie de la construction. Par l’adoption de ce régime, le législateur a voulu protéger l’intégrité économique de cette industrie. Par contre, l’utilisation de notions mécaniques plus ou moins efficaces dans la mise en œuvre de l’hypothèque légale, la prolifération d’outils de contournement contractuels et les mécanismes de protection des propriétaires nuisent à l’efficacité du régime légal à protéger les créances des sous-traitants. Des correctifs pourraient néanmoins être apportés pour restaurer l’équité du régime légal. Par ailleurs, lorsqu’un immeuble appartient à l’État ou l’un de ses mandataires, il devient pratiquement impossible pour un sous-traitant d’exercer ses recours hypothécaires compte tenu des privilèges et immunités dont jouissent l’État et de ses mandataires. Les biens affectés à l’utilité publique des personnes morales de droit public non-mandataires de l’État jouissent également d’une grande protection, surtout dans le domaine municipal. Ceci rend bien illusoire tout recours hypothécaire intenté par un sous-traitant malgré le fait le législateur cherchait justement, par le maintien d’un régime légal, à protéger leurs créances. / The construction hypothec is the main mechanism for the protection of the claims of every participant in the construction industry. With the adoption of this legal regime, the Quebec legislator tried to protect the economic integrity of this industry. However, the use of notions more or less efficient for the execution of this legal regime, the increase of contractual mechanisms which avoid the application of the legal regime and legal dispositions which protect the owners harm the efficiency of the legal regime to correctly protect subcontractor's claims. Nevertheless, some correctives can be found to restore the legal regime's equity. Moreover, when a immoveable is owned by the State or any of its agents, it is practically impossible for a subcontractor to exercise his hypothecary rights because of the State's privileges and immunities. The property appropriated to public utility of the legal persons established in the public interest which are not agents of the State enjoy also a strong protection, particularly in the municipal sector. In any case, it is rendering illusory the exercise by a subcontractors of any of his hypothecary rights despite the fact that the legislator's goal, by maintaining this legal regime, was precisely to protect their claims.

Les avocats, praticiens et universitaires qui sont engagés dans le droit des transports internationaux de marchandises par mer ont l’habitude de travailler avec un régime complexe de responsabilité du transporteur maritime. La coexistence de plusieurs conventions régissant ce régime et l’imprécision des textes de ces différentes législations rendent leur application difficile d’où l’échec permanent du voeu d’uniformisation de ce droit. En premier lieu, nous retrouvons le régime de base celui de la Convention de Bruxelles sur l’unification de certaines règles en matière de connaissement, ratifiée le 25 août 1924 et ses Protocoles modificatifs annexés en 1968 et 1979. Il s’agit d’un régime fondé sur la présomption de responsabilité comprenant une liste de cas exonératoires appelés « cas exceptés ». En second lieu figurent les Règles de Hambourg, édictées en 1978, qui établissent un régime basé sur la présomption de faute du transporteur à l’exception de deux cas exonératoires : l’incendie et l’assistance ou la tentative de sauvetage. Enfin, apparaît la Convention sur le contrat de transport international de marchandises effectué entièrement ou partiellement par mer, adoptée par les Nations unies en 2009, sous l’appellation « Les Règles de Rotterdam », qui adopte un régime de responsabilité « particulier ». Cette étude a tenté d’analyser ces mécanismes juridiques mis en place. Pour ce faire, nous nous sommes concentrées sur les sources du dysfonctionnement de ces régimes, afin de favoriser le développement d’initiatives d’uniformisation des règles de responsabilité du propriétaire du navire. L’analyse des textes positifs, de la doctrine et de la jurisprudence, nous a permis de constater que les différentes approches du régime juridique du transporteur maritime des marchandises sous ces différentes législations ne garantissent pas la prévisibilité et la sécurité juridiques recherchées par les différents acteurs maritimes. Par conséquent, l’absence d’un régime cohérent et unifié a créé des incertitudes au sein de la communauté maritime internationale et au sein des tribunaux en cas de litige. Pour surmonter cette réalité complexe, notre thèse propose une approche qui pourra simplifier ce régime, l’approche objective. / Lawyers, academics and practitioners who are involved in law of carriage of goods by sea are used to working with a complex regime of carrier’s liability. The coexistence of multiple international conventions governing the regime of liability of the maritime carrier and their different and inconsistent legislative styles, have become the main reason for lack of uniformity in the field of the carriage of goods by sea. The Brussels Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules Relating to Bill of Lading signed in August 25, 1924 and its Protocols amending 1968 and 1979 are based on presumption liability regime with a list of "excepted cases". A second Convention known as the Hamburg Rules of 1978 established a regime based on the presumption of fault of the carrier with two exceptions: fire and assistance or salvage. Finally, in 2009 the United Nations adopted the Convention on Contract for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or Partly by Sea based on a ''special'' regime. This study of the three conventions attempts to analyze their legal mechanisms and the sources of their dysfunction. By analyzing the positive texts, jurisprudence, opinions and thoughts of scholars on this matter, we found that the different legal approaches adopted under these various laws do not ensure predictability and legal certainty sought out by maritime actors and courts. To overcome this complex reality, this thesis proposes an approach that will simplify the applicability of the rules of carrier’s liability, which is the objective approach.

La mondialisation a favorisé l’essor de l’innovation collaborative entraînant une augmentation du nombre de partenariats entre différents acteurs. Grâce à leurs avantages multiples, les projets conjoints jouent un rôle fondamental dans le développement économique et industriel des secteurs à forte valeur ajoutée. Dans cette optique, la création ou la quantification de valeur par l’innovation collaborative repose en grande partie sur la capacité à commercialiser des innovations encadrées par une protection intellectuelle adéquate. Ainsi, la tendance mondiale témoigne d’une augmentation accrue des dépôts conjoints de brevets entre diverses entités. Ces co-dépôts soulèvent une variété de questions juridiques puisque les régimes statutaires ne sont pas nécessairement adaptés à la réalité des partenariats. D’abord, les régimes lacunaires proposés par les lois n’anticipent pas les conséquences juridiques de l’interaction entre divers acteurs. La variété de configurations d’intervenants et la typologie des partenariats entraînent une confusion entre les inventeurs et les propriétaires lors du dépôt d’une demande de brevet. Cette situation peut également induire de facto la copropriété d’un brevet pouvant causer des litiges et miner l’énorme valeur des brevets conjoints. Ensuite, les régimes statutaires sont également déficients à l’étape de l’exploitation d’un brevet conjoint. En comparant les régimes juridiques canadiens et américains, il devient possible de mieux cerner les enjeux juridiques associés aux questionnements présents lors de l’élaboration d’un partenariat. Afin d’obtenir des retombées fructueuses des brevets conjoints, une mise en forme contractuelle est proposée pour pallier ces lacunes statutaires. Grâce à des outils contractuels et à une planification pré-contractuelle, les copropriétaires pourront réaliser l’énorme potentiel de cette institution. / Globalization has encouraged the development of collaborative innovation, leading to an increased number of partnerships between various actors. Because of their multiple benefits, joint projects play a key role in the economic and industrial development of high value-added sectors. In this context, the creation or quantification of value by collaborative innovation depends largely on the ability to market innovations having an adequate intellectual property protection. Thus, the global trend shows a significant increase in joint filings of patent applications between various entities. These co-filings raise a variety of legal issues, since the statutory schemes are not necessarily adapted to the reality of partnerships. First, the incomplete schemes provided by laws do not anticipate the legal consequences of the interaction between different actors. The variety of stakeholder configurations and types of partnerships leads to confusion between the inventors and the owners when filing a patent application. This situation can also lead to de facto co-ownership of a patent, which may result in disputes and undermine the tremendous value of joint patents. In addition, the statutory schemes are also deficient at the stage of the exploitation of a joint patent. By comparing the Canadian and American legal schemes, it becomes possible to better identify the legal issues associated with the questions presented during the development of a partnership. To achieve successful outcomes from joint patents, a contractual framework is proposed to overcome these statutory gaps. Through the use of contractual tools and pre-contract planning, joint owners can realize the enormous potential of this institution.

La stratégie «Adequate shelter for all and sustainable settlements development in an urbanising world» adoptée au sommet mondial Habitat II d’Istanbul de 1996, traduite dans les Objectifs du Millénaire pour le Développement et maintenant dans les Objectifs de Développement Durable, vise à fournir un logement décent au plus grand nombre de ménages dans les villes du monde et celles d’Afrique Subsaharienne en particulier. La crise du logement caractérisée par les conditions abjectes dans lesquelles la majorité des ménages des villes d’Afrique subsaharienne se logent, devient ainsi un problème majeur auquel la littérature spécialisée promeut généralement, parmi tous les modes d’occupation du logement, l’accession à la propriété comme la panacée. En supposant que cette dimension de la crise du logement ne peut s’expliquer que par les comportements résidentiels des ménages généralement autopromoteurs de leurs logements en Afrique de l’Ouest, et à Lomé la capitale du Togo en particulier, cette thèse de doctorat vise à répondre à la question générale de recherche suivante : Les choix résidentiels à Lomé, en particulier le choix du statut d’occupation du logement, sont-ils exclusivement influencés par le profil des ménages occupants? Par une approche mixte d’écologie urbaine basée sur des analyses croisées de régression logistique multinomiale appliquées à trois sources de données (RGPH4 de 2010, QUIBB de 2011, TERRAIN 2013) étayées par l’analyse biographique relative aux stratégies résidentielles d’un échantillon de 411 ménages participants dans quatre quartiers de Lomé, choisie comme base empirique, la recherche a plus ou moins confirmé les hypothèses émises a priori par les résultats principaux suivants: En lien avec la faible mobilité résidentielle générale qui caractérise les pratiques résidentielles à Lomé, les ménages choisissent, en élaborant des stratégies «de petits pas», leur statut d’occupation du logement suivant des trajectoires résidentielles surtout ascendantes, en fonction plus de leur profil démographique (âge, genre, statut migratoire et matrimonial, type et taille) que de leur statut socioéconomique (revenu, emploi, éducation). Ces choix résidentiels sont également déterminés par les attributs des logements (typologie, localisation et accès aux services de base) constituant les parcs résidentiels existants. Les ménages propriétaires de Lomé, souvent biparentaux, sont plus âgés, plus larges que les ménages locataires et hébergés. Les natifs de la ville et les migrants de longue date sont plus enclins à être propriétaires et durablement hébergés que les nouveaux arrivants. Globalement plus fortunés que les hébergés, les propriétaires ne sont pas forcément plus nantis et plus éduqués que les locataires. L’habitat de cour, habitation multifamiliale majoritaire dans le parc résidentiel de Lomé, bien qu’il abrite des ménages de tous les statuts résidentiels, il est surtout réservé aux locataires. La thèse suggère que des programmes accrus de financement institutionnel du logement, de rénovation générale du parc résidentiel existant et de production d’une version améliorée de l’habitat de cour, avec l’assistance technique publique, contribueront à fournir un logement décent au plus grand nombre de ménages qu’ils soient propriétaires, locataires ou hébergés, à Lomé et ailleurs dans les villes d’Afrique de l’Ouest, conformément au paradigme actuel du développement durable des établissements humains. / «Adequate shelter for all and sustainable settlements development in an urbanizing world», strategy adopted in 1996 at the World Summit Habitat II of Istanbul and expressed in the Millennium Development Goals and now in Sustainable Development Goals, aims to provide a decent housing for the greatest number of households in the world and especially in sub-saharian African towns. Since then, access to adequate housing becomes an important issue for housing research in developing and sub-Saharan African countries where most of households still live in abject conditions of lack adequate water and sanitation services which, among others, typify the acute housing crisis they are facing up to. Housing policies and literature generally promote homeownership as the panacea to solve this size of the housing shortage. Assuming that this housing crisis in West Africa, especially in Lomé the capital of Togo, should be explained by the residential behavior of the households, who are self-help promoters in majority, this doctoral thesis try to answer the following general research question: Are the residential choices in Lomé, especially tenure choice, exclusively influenced by the occupier households’ characteristics? By a mixed approach of urban ecology based on multinomial logistic regression cross-study analyses applied to three data sources (RGPH4 2010, QUIBB 2011 and 2013 field survey data) supported by the life histories concerning the residential strategies of a sample of 411 households in four areas of Lomé chosen as empirical basis, the research confirms more or less the assumptions made, by the following main results: In connection with the general low residential mobility that characterizes the residential patterns in Lomé, households make their tenure choices through especially upward trajectories by developing strategies of «small steps», more according to their demographic profile (stage of life cycle, age, gender, migratory and marital status, type, size) than their socioeconomic status (income, employment, education). These residential choices are also determined by the characteristics of the existing residential parks (typology, location, access to basic services of housing). We find that owner-occupiers are often bi-parental households headed by men, older and larger than renter and free-holder households in Lomé. Native and long-term migrant households are more likely to be homeowners and long-term sharers than those who recently migrate. Homeowner households are overall well-off than free-holders, but they are not necessary wealthier and better educated than the renters. The thesis also shows that family house which mainly makes up the residential park of Lomé, is especially kept for renters, although it shelters households of all the tenures. We suggest that steady programmes of housing finance systems extended to all the sectors of the society, concentrated on the access of the current housing stock to basic services and on the supply, with the public technical support, of an improved version of family house, will largely contribute to offer a decent housing to most of the households in Lomé as elsewhere in West African cities, whether they are owner-occupiers, renters or sharers.

This master dissertation (diploma) is committed to inheritance, inheritance law and inheritance with a focus on properties and also inheritance with international subject in the inheritance procedure. The goal of this work is to give sufficient information so that even the uninformed reader will know what is associated with inheritance, what are the basic terms from this area of law and also the questions of inheritance's inter-family relations because inheritance will be a subject everyone deals with eventually. The subject of this dissertation is inheritance throughout history to its current legal regulation. At the same time it is also mentioned inheritance as a change of ownership law and concepts that are related with this part of civil law. In the introduction is explained the terms of inheritance and inheritance law are explained with the view to the history of Roman law and to the Middle Ages. Next is an explanation of the basic law terms through to our current law regulation. There is also a focus on inheritance procedures including the change of the ownership rights and then will be the process of the registration of the ownership right to the real estate cadastre. With this topic is also connected a possibility of inheritance procedure with properties. At the end this work is included practices of case with international subject in the inheritance procedure. Because of the focus on the inheritance of properties, the last chapter is about the valuation of properties in the course of the inheritance procedure.

Under senare tid har allt fler företag börjat utöva verksamhet där mark nyttjas för olika aktiviteter med stöd av allemansrätten. HD har bedömt att sådant nyttjande; kanalisering, är tillåtet med stöd av allemansrätten, men uttalade i NJA 1996 s. 495 (”Forsränningsmålet”) samtidigt att nyttjandet bara är tillåtet så länge marken inte skadas. Eftersom skadeståndsfrågan aldrig har prövats i samband med allemansrätten har föremålet för denna uppsats varit att utreda möjligheterna att utfå ersättning för skador via allmänna skadeståndsrättsliga regler, skadestånds- och avhjälpandeansvaret i miljöbalken samt för intrång i äganderätten via expropriationslagen och möjligheten att få ersättning ur en försäkring. Expropriationsalternativet kan inte användas idag, eftersom marknyttjande med stöd av allemansrätten är ett icke ersättningsgillt intrång i äganderätten. Möjligheterna till att betrakta en skada på marken som en sakskada är stora. Det finns emellertid omständigheter som skapar komplikationer för båda skadeståndsansvarsformerna. En allmän skadeståndstalan kräver att culpa hos skadevållaren kan bevisas, vilket kan vara svårt när många människor vistas på en plats samtidigt. Kanalisatören kan betraktas som culpös enligt principerna om kumulativ eller anonym culpa, enligt vilka en principal blir ansvarig, trots att de individer han ansvarar för inte, var och en för sig, varit culpösa. Det miljörättsliga skadeståndsansvaret bygger på ersättning för störningar som inte är orts- eller allmänvanliga. När det gäller allemansrättsligt nyttjande torde många störningar betraktas som just orts- eller allmänvanliga. Avhjälpandeansvaret i miljöbalken bygger på ersättning för miljöfarlig verksamhet, och det är tveksamt om det kan tillämpas på kanalisatörens verksamhet. Expropriationsersättning på grund av allemansrättsligt nyttjande tillerkänns inte markägaren enligt gällande rätt, vilket kan tyckas märkligt eftersom många nyttjandeformer som påminner om allemansrätten, t.ex. servitut, medför sådan ersättningsrätt. Det finns vissa möjligheter att ersätta markskador ur försäkringar. Dock är de flesta skador följden av invasionsproblematik, som är mycket svårt försäkra. Samtliga ersättningsformer har visat sig otillräckliga för att ersätta skador som är estetiska och ideella, eftersom sådana skador inte kan beräknas i pengar. Beroende på hur marknyttjande med stöd av allemansrätten betraktas har man olika åsikt om i vad mån kanalisatören borde ersätta markägaren för skador på marken. Om nyttjandet uppfattas som någonting som finns vid sidan av markäganderätten är endast konkreta skador ersättningsgilla. Om man anser att nyttjandet är ett intrång i äganderätten och en förmögenhetsöverföring från markägaren till kanalisatören bör emellertid redan rätten att nyttja marken föranleda ersättning. Den ersättningsform som bäst tillgodoser markägarens intresse av att få skador på marken åtgärdade och få ersättning för ekonomisk förlust är avhjälpandeansvaret. Endast det ansvaret reparerar till fullo skador på miljön. Det krävs emellertid ett domstolsavgörande för att slutligen klargöra avhjälpandeansvarets tillämplighet. / Recently, more and more companies have come to exercise activities under the right of public access on land that belongs to whomever. The High Court has assessed that such use of land; channeling, is permitted, but in NJA 1996 s. 495 (“The Rafting Case”) also announced that this use is only allowed as long as the land remains unharmed. Since the question of damages in the context of the right of public access has not yet been treated in jurisprudence, the object of this thesis has been to investigate the possibilities to obtain restitution for damages via tort law, liability under the environment act as well as for proprietary intrusions under the expropriation act and restitution via insurance. Expropriation, however, cannot currently be made use of, since the right of public access is an intrusion which does not entail restitution. There are extensive possibilities for considering damage to the land as damage to property. However, there are ramifications for both the legal options for damages: the tort law and the environmental act. The tort law requires tortuous behaviour from the tortfeasor to be established, which is difficult when several persons stay at one place simultaneously. The canalizer may be considered tortuous under the principle of vicarious liability and cumulative or anonymous tort. According to these principles, the canalizer is responsible for the actions of certain individuals, even though they have not, individually, been negligent. The environmental liability for damage is based on restitution for disturbances that are not common to the place nor to the general public. This fact is difficult to establish in the context of the right of public access. The remedial responsibility of the environmental act is constructed for operations that are harmful to the environment, which is why it is dubious whether the responsibility is applicable to the canalizer’s activities. Currently, compensation for expropriation cannot result of use of land under the right of public access. This is peculiar, since many usufructs reminiscent of the right of public access, i.e. the easement, result in such compensation. Some forms of damage to the land can be insured. Although, most damage in this context arise from invasion, a cause of damage which is nearly impossible to insure. All forms of restitution have proven insufficient for compensating damage that is esthetic or otherwise non-pecuniary. Depending on if the right of public access is regarded as proprietary intrusion or something that exists alongside the right to property, one comes to different conclusions about the extent of compensation for damage. In the former case, only substantial damage is compensable. In the latter case, even the right to use the land occasions compensation. The liability which best meets the needs of the proprietor: compensation and restoration of damage to his property, is the remedial responsibility of the environmental code. This responsibility alone fully restores harm to the environment. However, the applicability of the remedial responsibility needs to be established in jurisprudence.