Ce travail de recherche consiste à démontrer que la place de l’adjectif dépend de contraintes syntaxiques, mais également de contraintes sémantiques et pragmatiques.L’analyse comparative entre un roman romantique et un roman naturaliste vise à montrer l’importance de la place de l’adjectif épithète au sein du texte, car ce phénomène permet à chaque écrivain de produire certains effets sur les lecteurs qui dépendent des intentions recherchées et par conséquent de l’œuvre étudiée.L'objectif de notre thèse consiste avant tout à montrer que l’adjectif, selon la place qu’il occupe, va permettre non seulement d’apporter différents types de précisions sur le référent désigné par le substantif, mais aussi de transmettre le point de vue du locuteur et de persuader le récepteur.Si bien que ce phénomène permet de montrer que chaque discours littéraire est unique et d’en expliquer le pourquoi. / This research project consisted of showing that the place of the adjective depends not only on syntax but also on semantic and pragmatic constraints.A comparative analysis between a romance novel and a naturalist novel aims to show the importance of the place of the attributive adjective within a text, as this phenomenon allows each writer to produce certain effects on their readers which depend on the intention sought and, consequently, on the work studied.The objective of this thesis consists above all in showing that the adjective, depending on the place that it has, will not only allow for different types of precisions to be brought to the referent as designated by the substantive, but moreover to fulfil a macro-speech-act which constitutes a discourse act and also to transmit the speaker’s point of view and to convince the receiver. This phenomenon allows us to show that each literary discourse is unique and to explain the reasons for this.

Le serious game d'apprentissage utilisé dans le monde professionnel se doit de lier la pratique du jeu à la pratique métier. Cet enjeu concerne les concepteurs, ainsi que les responsables de formation ou responsables des ressources humaines, tous intéressés par la transmission ou l'évaluation des compétences. Mais alors que les serious games simulant des relations interpersonnelles convoquent les notions de fiction, d'immersion, de réalisme ou encore de référentialité, ils réactivent des problématiques rencontrées par le cinéma documentaire. Thèse défendue : cette thèse propose que les théories et pratiques du cinéma documentaire puissent servir l'intention pédagogique du concepteur de serious game pour favoriser l'acquisition de nouvelles compétences chez l'utilisateur. Objectifs : sur le plan cognitif, l'objectif est d'explorer l'apprentissage lié à la confrontation de points de vue divergents (conflit sociocognitif), par l'intermédiaire d'un serious game monojoueur. L'objectif communicationnel associé est d'expliquer la construction d'un interlocuteur, fictif ou réel, capable d'opposer un point de vue à l'utilisateur. Pour répondre à ces objectifs, le cheminement historique et socioculturel du cinéma documentaire renseignera différentes formes discursives et relationnelles du serious game. Méthode : 4 configurations du même serious game EHPAD ont été expérimentées dans un quasi-plan d'expérience sur une période de 5 mois, auprès de 250 utilisateurs issus de 10 établissements médicaux. Notre enquête s'est appuyée sur des questionnaires auto administrés et l’enregistrement de traces d'activités. Aux traitements statistiques qui découlent de l’enquête s'ajoutent 5 focus groups, 3 entretiens individuels et des rapports d'observation. Principaux résultats : premièrement, une série de transpositions théoriques soutient l'analogie entre serious game et cinéma documentaire. Sur le plan empirique, notre enquête confirme cette analogie en soulignant que l'utilisation du serious game en contexte professionnel est propice à l'enclenchement d'une lecture documentarisante. Deuxièmement, la comparaison des configurations du jeu EHPAD démontre l'influence significative de deux figures narratives (mise en abyme et métalepse) sur l'accroissement de la documentarité et de la confrontation des points de vue. Au final, notre recherche aboutit à une "grammaire narrato-cognitive" permettant aux concepteurs de passer d'une écriture documentée, à une écriture documentaire : la compétence visée n'est plus cantonnée dans une fiction, mais étendue de manière réflexive aux énonciateurs réels. / Serious games for learning, used in the professional world, link both game and work practices. This issue concerns designers as well as training managers and human resources managers, all interested in transferring and evaluating professional skills. But serious games, simulating interpersonal relationships through notions of fiction, immersion, realism or referentiality, are also reactivating some problems encountered by documentary films. Thesis defended: This thesis suggests that the theory and practice of documentary cinema can serve the educational intent of the designer of serious game to facilitate the acquisition of new skills by the user. Objectives: On the cognitive level, the purpose is to explore the learning related to confrontation of viewpoints (sociocognitive conflict) through serious game on a single-player mode. The associated communicative purpose is to explain the construction of an interlocutor, a fictitious or a real one, who is able to oppose his point of view to the user. In order to meet these objectives, the sociocultural and historical processes of documentary filmmaking will advise different discursive and relational forms of the serious game. Method: 4 configurations of the same serious game EHPAD were tested in a quasi-experimental plan over a period of 5 months, with 250 users from 10 medical institutions. Our investigation is based on self-administered questionnaires and on an activity tracking system. To the statistical treatment arisen from the investigation, 5 focus groups, 3 individual interviews and observational reports are added. Main results: First, a series of theoretical transpositions supports the analogy between serious games and documentary filmmaking. On the empirical side, our investigation confirms this analogy by pointing out that the use of serious games in a professional context is favorable to engage a documentarizing reading. Second, the comparison between the 4 configurations of the game EHPAD demonstrates the significant influence of two narrative figures (mise en abyme and metalepsis) on the increase of "documentarity" and viewpoints confrontation. Finally, our research leads to a "narrato-cognitive grammar" allowing designers to move from a documented to a documentary writing: the targeted competency is no longer confined to fiction but extended by reflexivity to the real enunciators.

Les formations à la traduction pragmatique offrent un enseignement professionnalisant dense et multiforme. Or il n’est pas certain que les étudiants intègrent au mieux compétences déclaratives et opérationnelles, faute d’avoir suffisamment conscience de leurs méthodes de travail. Par ailleurs, les recherches sur l’expertise montrent qu’une formation initiale solide et des années d’expérience ne suffisent pas à garantir le développement optimal des compétences professionnelles. Outre un environnement de travail favorable au développement de ces compétences, la solution résiderait dans l’adoption d’une démarche d’apprentissage autorégulé.La présente contribution vise à évaluer la capacité des étudiants à adopter ponctuellement une telle démarche à la suite d’une séquence d’enseignement renforçant leurs compétences métacognitives. Une collecte de données de référence et deux expérimentations ont permis d’estimer l’effet de la régulation sur l’activité traduisante et d’évaluer l’intérêt du dispositif d’enseignement proposé.Il en ressort que les étudiants qui ont eu l’occasion d’analyser leurs propres processus cognitifs et de les comparer à ceux de leurs pairs et à ceux de professionnels présentant un degré élevé de régulation auraient les capacités d’agir consciemment sur leurs habitudes de travail. Ces résultats, qui demandent néanmoins à être vérifiés auprès de cohortes plus larges, indiquent que le dispositif d’enseignement proposé pourrait donner aux étudiants des clés pour intervenir sur leurs habitudes de travail et, plus largement, sur leur environnement de travail. Ce faisant, il s’inscrirait dans la dynamique actuelle qui sensibilise les étudiants en traduction à l’ergonomie cognitive, physique et organisationnelle au poste de travail. / Translator training programmes comprise a wide range of contents and of instructional methods. But it would appear that students do not bridge the gap between declarative and procedural competences to the best of their abilities as a result of their lack of knowledge and understanding of their own working habits. Moreover, expertise research has shown that however robust the initial training, the mere accumulation of experience does not automatically lead to the optimal development of professional competence. The key to expertise would rest both in a suitable working environment and in deliberately self-regulated practice.The present contribution aims at assessing the ability of students to deliberately alter a given aspect of their translation habits after taking part in a workshop designed to strengthen their metacognitive skills. Reference data were collected and analysed to work out the effect of regulation on translating. Our proposed teaching sequence was then tested on two groups of students.It would seem that those students who were able to analyse their own habits and to compare them to those of their fellow students and of professional translators displaying a high level of regulation were able to consciously alter their working habits to a certain extent. Due to the limited number of participants, these results need confirmation through repetition on wider cohorts. But it seems that the proposed teaching sequence could provide students with a tool to proactively improve their working habits or their working environment. As such, it could be part of the wider movement of raising students’ awareness of the importance of cognitive, physical and organisational ergonomics at the workplace that is currently taking place in translator training.

La présente est une analyse des connecteurs du français et de la langue luo. Beaucoup d’études de ce genre ont été réalisées et se sont intéressées à la comparaison des connecteurs d’une langue européenne à une autre. Des études portant sur les comparaisons des connecteurs d’une langue européenne à une langue soit bantoue soit nilotique ou couchitique sont rares. Dans une situation de communication, les problèmes liés au vouloir-dire du locuteur retiennent particulièrement notre attention. La présente étude poursuit les objectifs suivants : faire connaître l’origine possible des connecteurs de la langue luo et analyser les similarités et les différences entre les connecteurs de la langue luo et du français quant à leur nature, leur distribution et leur effet de sens. L’étude est basée sur la théorie de l’argumentation d’Anscombre et Ducrot (1987). Une argumentation a lieu lorsque le locuteur présente un énoncé E1 ou un ensemble d’énoncés dans le but de faire admettre à son interlocuteur un autre énoncé E2 (ou une classe d'énoncés). En rapport avec les techniques de collecte de données, notre étude a eu recours à la recherche documentaire, suivie de l’ analyse approfondie des textes littéraires, une pièce de théâtre, des discours politiques et des textes argumentatifs rédigés par les étudiants de Maseno University et Moi University. La recherche prend en considération les correspondances des connecteurs d’addition, d’opposition, de concession, de cause, de conséquence et de temps, luo et français. Les données sont analysées qualitativement car une telle analyse met en relief une description détaillée de données. Nous espérons que les résultats de cette étude intéresseront à la fois les enseignants des langues et ceux de la traduction, ainsi que leurs étudiants, les chercheurs en général et ceux qui travaillent sur les langues africaines en particulier. / This is an analysis of French and Luo sentence connectors. Comparative studies are commonly found between one European language and another. Research carried out on connectors of European and Bantu, Nilotic or Cushitic languages are rare. This thesis thus seeks to fill this knowledge gap. As revealed by literature review, European languages have a wide array of connecters that express different semantic values. If identifying and pegging particular semantic values to connectors of European language poses a challenge, it could be asserted that identifying those of African languages is even a more difficult task since African languages have a smaller number of connectors which could convey a bigger array of semantic value. The objectives of the study are: to determine the possible origin of Luo connectors and to analyze the similarities and differences of Luo and French connectors in terms of nature, distribution and semantic value of the connectors. The study is guided by the argumentative theory of Anscombre and Ducrot (1987). According to the theory, in a situation of argument, the locutor presents E1 in order to orient his interlocutor towards E2. The data collection techniques are grounded on library research as well as reading and analyzing of selected literary texts, a short play, political discourse and argumentative texts written by students from Maseno and Moi Universities. The research is limited to connectors of addition, opposition, concession, cause, consequence and of time, Data is analyzed qualitatively since qualitative analysis lays greater emphasis on holistic description of data. The research adopts a descriptive analysis design because it entails analyzing existing data sets. It is hoped that the results of this study will be vital to teachers of language, teachers of translation, students and to researchers who take interest in the Africans languages.

Cette thèse est centrée sur les pratiques de réception de textes en classe de FLE dans le cadre des ISCED en Angola, étant donné l’importance accordée au support écrit dans la vie quotidienne. Ces pratiques sont fortement marquées par la méthode interactive qui conditionne l’activité de l’apprenant, c’est-à-dire que la lecture est exclusivement orientée vers les besoins institutionnels. Bien évidemment, le processus de réception des textes en classe est régi par la démarche de lecture adoptée par l’enseignant.La vision innovatrice dans laquelle s’inscrit cette thèse met l’accent sur le rapport pragmatique entre les tâches de lecture en classe et celles de la vie quotidienne. Le contexte social de l’apprenant, qui doit être pris en compte dans le processus d’enseignement/apprentissage, est mis en relief dans cette recherche comme le postule la perspective actionnelle : l’apprenant devient un acteur social par l’intermédiaire de sa formation. Il est donc censé accomplir des tâches de lecture en classe proches de situations authentiques eu égard aux conditions d’adaptabilité. Ainsi, le profil de sortie des apprenants s’adaptera aux exigences de la société.Cette étude fait appel à des tâches de lecture permettant de décentraliser ce processus en classe. / This thesis is focused on the practice of receiving texts in French foreign language classes under the ISCEDs of Angola, taking into account the importance of writing in everyday life. These practices are strongly marked by interactive method that determines the learner's activity, that is, reading is exclusively geared to the institutional needs. Of course, the process of receiving the texts in the classroom is governed by the reading mode adopted by the teacher. The innovative vision in which this thesis is part emphasizes the pragmatic relationship between the reading tasks in the classroom and in everyday life. The social context of the learner, which must be taken into account in the teaching / learning process is highlighted in this research as postulated by the approach oriented to action: the learner becomes a social actor through tasks. Therefore, he/she must perform reading tasks in the classroom close to authentic situations taking into account the conditions of adaptability . Thus, the output profile of the subjects they learn will adapt to the demands of society. This study calls on reading tasks that enable the decentralization of this process in the classroom.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-02-24T19:35:54Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 AlberyLS_DISSERT.pdf: 248256 bytes, checksum: ac5e3a0839df2e36cbaad666d13a1d4b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-07-02 / Ce travail a comme objectif analyser la structure et l'efficacit? d'un syst?me symbolique, qui est configur? ? travers qui le philosophe Dufour (2000), ? partir du linguiste Benveniste (1995) et du philosophe Lyotard (1998), dans la manutention et la sustentation des r?cits et d'histoires, appelle de trinit? naturel des la langue. C'est sous cet appareil, inscrit ? travers des pronomes ? moi ?, ? toi ? et ? lui ? qui nous ?tudierons les suivantes questions: 1. comme s'il ?tablit, synchronement, la mise ? jour du mythe religieux Santa Menina pr?sente dans la ville de Flor?nia, g?n? dans le coeur broussard du Rio Grande do Norte? 2. qui mani?re, diachronement, les r?cits sur mentionn? mythe s?il r?cup?re? Le culte religieux ? la Santa Menina est marqu? discoursivement ? travers d?un univers ? facettes multiples qui se soutient ? travers les voix de floranienses sur l'histoire d'une fille, dont le corps est trouv? intact et qui, sacralit?e par la population, est connu comme la Santa Menina. Une histoire qui, notamment, avait/a r?percussion et r?sonance, en participant, efficacement, des la r?alit? culturelle des la population. Th?oriquement, notre travail est nourri par des savoirs arriv?s, des la Linguistique, et des ?tudes sur la M?moire et l'Histoire Verbale / Este trabalho tem como objetivo analisar a estrutura e a efic?cia de um sistema simb?lico, que ? configurado atrav?s do que o fil?sofo Dufour (2000), a partir do linguista Benveniste (1995) e do fil?sofo Lyotard (1998), na manuten??o e sustenta??o de narrativas e relatos denominados de trindade natural da l?ngua. ? sob esse aparelho, inscrito atrav?s dos pronomes eu , tu e ele que estudaremos as seguintes quest?es: 1. como se estabelece, sincronicamente, a atualiza??o do mito religioso Santa Menina presente na cidade de Flor?nia, encravada no cora??o sertanejo do Rio Grande do Norte? 2. de que modo, diacronicamente, as narrativas sobre o referido mito se re-atualiza? O culto religioso ? Santa Menina ? marcado discursivamente atrav?s de um universo multifacetado que se sustenta atrav?s das vozes dos floranienses sobre a hist?ria de uma menina, cujo corpo fora encontrado intacto e que, sacralizada pela popula??o, ? conhecida como a Santa Menina. Uma hist?ria que, notadamente, teve/tem repercuss?o e resson?ncia, participando, efetivamente, da realidade cultural da popula??o. Teoricamente, nosso trabalho est? alimentado por saberes advindos, da Lingu?stica, e de estudos sobre a Mem?ria e a Hist?ria Oral

Notre thèse a pour objet les temps du passé de l’indicatif en français (en particulier le passé simple, l’imparfait et le passé composé). Les approches sur le temps sont multiples et elles utilisent des concepts variés qui tentent d’expliquer le fonctionnement de ces formes à travers de nombreux paradigmes. Ainsi, la grammaire scolaire se contente de stipuler que les temps du passé de l’indicatif ont pour rôle de situer les événements dans l’époque passée. Mais, si l’on confronte les théories traditionnelles avec les approches linguistiques plus récentes sur la sémantique des temps verbaux, on observe que l’emploi de ces temps implique à la fois une référence temporelle, une visée illocutoire et discursive ainsi qu’une attitude psychologique et pragmatique. Nous étudions donc dans ce travail les usages en discours des temps du passé à partir de leurs valeurs en langue en essayant de montrer de quelle manière les contenus temporel, aspectuel et modal interfèrent et se complètent dans l’expression verbale du passé. Nous mettons en évidence le fait que le choix des temps du passé est motivé également par la manière de se représenter les événements et par le type d’information que veut faire passer le locuteur à son interlocuteur. L’emploi des temps du passé caractérise également des types particuliers de discours et participe à la cohérence informationnelle du texte. Enfin, le traitement d’approches aspectuo-temporelles, textuelles et pragmatiques nous conduira à adopter le modèle essentiellement praxématique pour une étude du fonctionnement des temps du passé en langue et en discours dans un texte littéraire, Thérèse Desqueyroux de François Mauriac. / Our work has for object the times of the past in French (in particular the simple past, the imperfect and the present perfect). The approaches at the time are multiple and they use varied concepts which try to explain the functioning of these forms through of many paradigms. So, the grammar contents with stipulating that the times of the past have for role to place the events in the past time. But, if we confront the traditional theories with the more recent linguistic approaches on semantics of the tenses of the verb, we observe that the use of these times implies at the same time a temporal reference, an aim illocutoire and discursive as well as a psychological and pragmatic attitude. We study in this work the uses in speech of the past time from their values in language by trying to show, first of all, how temporal, aspectual and modal contents interfere and complement each other in the verbal expression of past. We highlight the fact that the choice of the past times is motivated by the way of representing itself the events and by the type of information that the speaker wants to introduce to his interlocutor. The employment of the past times also characterizes particular types of speech and participates in the informative coherence of the text. The treatment of aspectuo-temporal, textual and pragmatic approcaches leads us to adopt the model primarily praxematic for a study of the use of the past times in language and speech in a literary text, Thérèse Desqueyroux of François Mauriac.

The goal I have pursued in writing this dissertation has been to provide the most complete account that I could manage of the various aspects of language that can be labelled metalinguistic, both in the language-system and in discourse. On a rough characterisation, metalanguage is language about language. Since I understand language both as a ‘potential’ (the language-system) and as its actualisation (language as discourse), there are theoretically four situations that can be subsumed under the term ‘metalanguage’: 1. there are lexical items (units in the system) that denote aspects of the system (preposition, noun, conjugation, plural, etc.); 2. there are items that denote elements of discourse (words and phrases like the aforementioned, the latter, etc.). At the same time, there are 3. utterances about the system (e.g. ‘Boston’ is a noun), and 4. utterances about discourse (i.e. about other utterances or parts of utterances, e.g. The old cow said teddible instead of terrible). In both 3 and 4, we have words that reflexively mention linguistic sequences. Following Rey-Debove, I have chosen to call these ‘autonyms’.Note also that discourse about language can be combined with discourse about extralinguistic reality. An utterance about a situation in the world can secondarily say something, for example, about language use; such is the case in The U.S. advocates ‘military action’, as newspapermen call it now, where a comment about a euphemism is appended to a statement about ‘the world’.All in all, this amounts to a fairly large body of data that is varied in kind. My goal has been to bring some order to this variegated set, to highlight in what respects its elements are similar and dissimilar. Thus, I have sought to sort out a number of issues that had not, as far as I could judge, been treated satisfactorily on previous occasions, and to make my descriptions compatible with the theory that was gradually taking shape. In particular, I have underlined the strong connections between the system-level aspects of metalanguage and its discourse manifestations, and I have been led to suggest that the latter ‘leak into’ the system. Besides, I have tried to give a more thorough account of certain properties of metalinguistic discourse, notably the recursiveness of mention or quotation, and its referential diversity. When I felt that I had come to an adequate account of metalinguistic discourse, I have attempted to supply a typology of its various manifestations that would integrate most of the criteria brought up in previous attempts. In the final part of the dissertation, I have brought together what I regard as a series of genuine challenges to the best existing theories of metalinguistic discourse, and have attempted to frame what possible solutions could be.THINGS IN SENTENCES, INFINITE LEXICON? P-ÊÊ UNE CODA APRÈS RECA + CHAPTER 8***The very notion of metalanguage originated in formal logic in the first half of the 20th c. Soon, some of the concepts developed by logicians were taken over by philosophers of language (and subsequently by a few linguists). That was notably the case with the distinction between the use and the mention of a linguistic sequence; use designating the ordinary, transparent, employment of an expression to denote something outside language and mention its being chosen as a topic for discussion. When the subject came under the scrutiny of philosophers of language, the essentially prescriptive approach of the logician (the logician decreed which features his languages and metalanguages should possess), was turned into an attempt at describing actual linguistic mechanisms. It is in this tradition that I situate myself.Philosophers of language have turned out to be particularly interested in quotation (the mention of linguistic expressions), but I have thought it useful to introduce a term that covered not just quotation, but also mention-without-quote-marks, as well as hybrid cases like example 5. This term is reflexive metalinguistic demonstration, but for convenience’ sake I shall make do with metalinguistic demonstration.In Chapter 2, I have examined in detail the main theories of metalinguistic demonstration put forward in the course of the 20th c. namely the Name, Description, Demonstrative and Identity theories. In the process, I have been able to gradually identify the various properties of metalinguistic demonstrations that should be regarded as essential. And I have also formed a clearer idea of the body of data that a theory should be able to account for. In the end, I have been able to outline what I believe is a sound theory of metalinguistic demonstrations. This theory is chiefly informed by the proposals of François Recanati (2000, 2001), supplemented with insights of Paul Saka (1998), both of whom are indebted to the Demonstrative and Identity accounts.My reasons for using Recanati (2001) as the backbone of my own theory are the following. Recanati has successfully drawn the line between two types of meaning conveyed by metalinguistic demonstrations, namely ‘pictorial’ and ‘conventional linguistic’ meaning, something that had not been done with that clarity before. Besides, he has had the wisdom to give up the standard assumption that all metalinguistic demonstrations are referential, an assumption that inevitably led to theoretical dead ends. Moreover, drawing on the first two insights, Recanati has also separated out the syntactic and pragmatic aspects that were often confused in previous approaches.There is no doubt that the theory put forward by Recanati in 2001 is the most empirically adequate that can be found in the literature. Besides, it also accounts for an impressive range of key properties. Still, there are two interesting properties that received very little attention from Recanati, that is, referential diversity and recursiveness. Though Paul Saka has argued in favour of both in a 1998 paper, I believe his defence to have been somewhat clumsy. And therefore I have tried to offer more convincing evidence in favour of these properties.Let’s start with ReferenceAs Recanati has shown, not all metalinguistic demonstrations are referential expressions. But there is one aspect of reference that he says very little about: the sort or sorts of referents that a referential autonym can have. The theory implicitly suggests that autonyms can only refer to types. (Many writers have claimed more robustly and more explicitlythat there was only one sort of referents for autonyms, always either types or classes of tokens).I hold this view to be incorrect. As I’ve indicated in Chapter 4 of the thesis, I believe that several sorts of referents must be distinguished. Let us have a few examples:Run is a verbRun has three lettersShe said, “I ain’t EVER gonna tell ya”The first refers to a lexeme, since the predicate applies to runs, ran, running, as well.The second, only to a form (since not true of running or runs).Both could still be said to be abstract objects, and one might wish to call these ‘types’.The third, however, well and truly seems to refer to a token, the particular utterance produced by the woman behind she, witness the mimicry involved in the direct speech report.In my discussion of the next property, I offer a further argument in favour of referential diversity.2. Metalinguistic demonstrations can be iterated (repeated), a property usually described as recursiveness, and which has given rise to some controversies. Some demonstrativists, notably Cappelen & Lepore, because they hold the interior of a quotation to be semantically inert, have rejected the idea of recursiveness. I think, however, that their rejection comes from their failure to discern several types of recursiveness. In my dissertation, I have distinguished three; I shall only sketch two here.“ ‘Boston’ ” is an autonym.Typographical recursiveness: hardly very interesting, since it is a mechanical operation that can be repeated at will.The next pair of examples throws a more interesting light on the matter:‘Boston’ is a six-letter word.In each utterance of the previous example, “ ‘Boston’ ” is used to refer to an orthographic formBoston enclosed in two pairs of quote marks refers to particular tokens of Boston in a single pair of quote marks, as are produced when uttering a token of the first sentence, ‘Boston’ is a six-letter word. In each utterance of that sentence, the subject, ‘Boston’, itself refers, this time to the name Boston. This means that we have a situation in which an autonym refers to another autonym which also refers: reference here is iterated.This is actually no problem for the assumption of the inertness of the interior of the quotation, because reference is directed outwards: the interior of the quotation itself (the token displayed) remains inert. Note that referential recursiveness is only possible when one has a meta-quotation that refers to a token that is itself a referential autonym. This confirms the need for the theory to accommodate reference to particular tokens.I have made further use of the theory of metalinguistic demonstrations in Chapter 6 of the thesis, which is devoted to sketching a typology of metalinguistic demonstrations. In this connection, I have tried to bring together different types of discriminating factors that had been used in previous classifications (syntactic, semantic, pragmatic, typographical, lexical). These did not seem to be compatible from the outset, but then I realised that they might perhaps all be integrated into a single typology if I adopted an interpreter’s perspective. I reflected that that perspective provided a criterion for determining which characteristics of metalinguistic demonstrations would count as relevant variables for a typology: only those that made a ‘difference for the interpreter’ (i.e. affected his/her interpretative processes) would be retained.I also took advanatge of the general theory for the interpretation of utterances that has been set out in some recent publications, notably by Bach and Recanati (and which I outline in Chapter 3 of the thesis), and eventually reached what I regard as a decent result. Moreover, I also made a couple of interesting discoveries. The first one is that quite a bit of the interpretation of an utterance takes place at a ‘pre-interpretative’ level, that is, befor a sentence has been clearly identified (disambiguated). In particular, there are significant pictorial aspects of metalinguistic demonstrations that enter into the disambiguation process rather than into interpretation proper. The second one is that there is an impressive number of aspects of meaning that are linked to the speaker’s intentions, and should theoretically require access to the wide context of an utterance to be processed, that can be accessed at very low (semantic) levels of interpretation.In the final part of this presentation, I wish to examine a couple of instances of hybridity that face the theory with a more serious challenge than example 5 on the first slide. That example was easily explained in terms of simultaneous use and mention (the standard account in the literature): the same sequence, military action, was used ordinarily and, secondarily, demonstrated as being a particular form of euphemism. Other hybrids, on the other hand, do not lend themselves to such an analysis in a straightforward way. The first example I wish to bring up raises an interesting problem in connection with the notion of grammaticality:Robbe-Grillet describes himself in his introduction as “volontiers professeur de moi-même”.This can be rewritten as a pair of sentences, one for use the other for mention. We get:Use :Robbe-Grillet describes himself in his introduction as volontiers professeur de moi-même.Mention :Robbe-Grillet uses the expression “volontiers professeur de moi-même”.Although the mention line raises no special issues, there are great doubts as to the grammaticality of the ordinary-use line: a language-shift occurs in the middle of the sentence, and is not signalled by any marker, unlike in the initial hybrid. Though Recanati’s framework allows for language-shifts, and could therefore be relied on to argue that the correct interpretation can be ascribed to the French words in the example, it does not state rules determining at which spot in an utterance such a shift is acceptable grammatically. In other words, it says nothing about the possibility of a grammar that would straddle English and French. Fortunately, the idea of such grammars is supported by the limited research that has been carried out about code-switching. So, there may be theoretical backing for the assumption that the use line may after all be grammatical (with respect to a hybrid grammar).Note that these remarks are valid, I believe, not just for the use line of the twofold paraphrase, but for the initial hybrid too. Indeed, it is not clear — though some would be ready to say so — that the presence of quote marks is enough to alter the grammaticality of an utterance.Note also that an example like the previous one is a reminder of an essential fact about the work of language scholars: they start out to describe and/or explain some empirical data they find significant. But as things get more complicated, they must continually make decisions as to what must be acknowledged as relevant data for their research. Every step of the way, there may be a temptation to dismiss data — in the present case, on grounds of ungrammaticality — because these data threaten the validity of the theory being devised. Here, thanks to an analogy with grammatical accounts of code-switching, a case can be made for the grammaticality of utterances like the one under consideration. It is these kinds of extensions that broaden the linguist’s horizons and make research worthwhile.The second example I wish to examine raises interesting issues concerning iconicity. Though I have said nothing about it so far, iconicity is perhaps the single most important notion in any discussion of metalinguistic demonstration. In a nutshell, the basic assumption about ‘how such a demonstration makes sense’ is that the tokens displayed in a mentioning utterance are iconically related to the target of the demonstration. Iconicity can initially be understood as a matter of formal resemblance (cf the first batch of examples on Slide 1). The following example shows that the notion must be made more flexble than that:Descartes said that man “is a thinking substance”.Use: Descartes said that man is a thinking substance.Mention: Descartes said “is a thinking substance”.It can be seen that the mention line of the paraphrase is truth-conditionally incorrect: Descartes did not produce a token of is a thinking substance, since he was writing in Latin, not English. What Descartes said was est res cogitans. This might be taken to imply that the relation between the English tokens displayed and the Latin target is not a matter of iconicity. I would, with several other writers, suggest another direction: There is iconicity in this example, but the concept must be understood to be flexible and adaptable to contextual constraints. I believe such a conception to be necessary if one wants to be able to account for metalinguistic demonstrations within a single explanatory framework. There are too many instances of quotations that are not supported by formal identity to maintain a rigid notion of iconicity. I have added a last example on the slideConclusionAlthough I originally aspired to a comprehensive survey of things metalinguistic, I cannot but concede that there are still multiple aspects of the reflexive use of language that need looking into. I believe, however, that I have been able to shed some light on some areas of the debate. For instance, I believe that my discussion of the recursiveness and referential diversity of autonyms goes one step further than previous discussions. In particular, I hope to have been able to show convincingly that, contrary to a widespread opinion, an autonym can refer to various object, notably individual tokens. When these results are added to an excellent theory like Recanati’s, one ends up with a powerful explanatory apparatus. Moreover, this apparatus has the added advantage that it can easily be integrated into the general theory for the interpretation of utterances which I have alluded to before.I have taken advantage of this compatibility to outline my interpreter’s typology of metalinguistic demonstrations. Whether that effort was entirely successful or not, I think it has incidentally provided an excellent testing ground for the general theory. If only in that respect, the attempt was worth a try, since it shed light on the importance of pre-interpretative processes and on the conventional encoding of aspects of meaning that are otherwise heavily dependent on speaker’s intentions.Finally, I believe that the work doen in Chapter 8 has brought to the fore a number of question that deserve to be investigated at greater length in future. There are still dark areas in the study of world/language hybrids, but there also more general questions, e.g. regarding grammaticality and iconicity that need looking into. / Doctorat en philosophie et lettres, Orientation langue et littérature / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

La présente recherche vise à explorer des formes multiples de silence représentées dans un film et à étudier la façon dont le silence a été perçu et conçu par des cinéastes femmes selon la perspective de l’analyse critique de discours (ACD). Dans ce contexte, nous avons choisi quatre longs métrages produits durant le XXIe siècle par quatre femmes cinéastes originaires de deux milieux culturels différents — à savoir les États-Unis et la Tunisie, à travers lesquels nous avons abordé notre problématique. Nous avons adopté l’approche développée par Fairclough (1989) qui consiste en trois étapes analytiques : description, interprétation et explication, combinant pragmatisme et analyse sémiotique. Cette recherche introduit également le concept de ‘voicing’ en référence aux signes sémiotiques et aux techniques cinématographiques qui sous-tendent la signification du silence et sa dimension pragmatique. Les résultats de l'étude démontrent que l'utilisation de ‘voicing’ s’avère un moyen efficace pour créer une méthode systématique d'analyse du silence au cinéma. Ils montrent également qu’en dépit des différences, des thèmes abordés et du contexte socio-culturel des cinéastes, il existe un dénominateur commun entre les quatre films, à savoir leur positionnement féministe ou pro-féministe.En outre, il ressort de notre analyse que les films en question constituent des barrières de résistance à l'hégémonie patriarcale du cinéma grand public qui sont fortement influencées par les perceptions individuelles des cinéastes, leurs expériences personnelles et le contexte culturel auquel elles appartiennent. / The current research aims to explore several of the manifold states of silence represented in film and to investigate how silence and silencing have been perceived and conceived by female filmmakers from a Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) perspective.This is achieved by examining the case studies of four feature films produced in the twenty-first century by four female filmmakers from two different cultural backgrounds–namely the USA and Tunisia. Research questions are qualitatively applied to a corpus of four films, following Fairclough’s (1989) three analytic stages: description, interpretation and explanation, using pragmatics combined with semiotic analysis. The thesis also introduces the concept of ‘voicing’ with reference to the semiotic signs and film techniques that underpin the meaning of silence and its pragmatic dimension.The findings of the study show that using ‘voicing’ has proved to be effective in creating a systematic method of analyzing silence in films. They also show that even though the cinematographic practices, the themes dealt with and the socio-cultural background of the filmmakers may be different, there is a common denominator between the four films: their feminist or pro-feminist agenda.Further, it argues that the films under discussion may be considered as barriers of resistance to the hegemonic patriarchal mainstream cinema and that these barriers are strongly influenced by the filmmakers’ own individual perceptions, personal experiences and cultural background.

Dans ma thèse, je développe une analyse uniforme des insultes et des termes épais en termes de présuppositions. Je soutiens que les insultes et les termes épais - même si ils ont été étudiés par différentes disciplines - appartiennent à la même classe de «evaluatives hybrides». Mon travail vise à combler le fossé entre la recherche sur les termes d'épaisseur d'une part et la recherche sur les insultes de l'autre, en montrant que le mécanisme sous-jacents les insultes et les termes d'épaisseur est le même et que les différences phénoménales que on peut observer dépendent des particularités de leur contenu descriptif. / In this thesis I develop a uniform account of slurs and thick terms in terms of presuppositions. I argue that slurs and thick terms – even though they were studied by different disciplines – belong to the same class of ‘hybrid evaluatives’. My work aims to fill the gap between the research on thick terms on the one hand and the research on slurs on the other, by showing that the mechanisms underlying slurs and thick terms is one and the same and that the phenomenal differences that one can observe depend on the peculiarities of their descriptive content.