本研究主要探討台灣漢語兒童在日常家庭對話中，對父母行使請求時的語言表現及禮貌現象，以了解漢語兒童的語用發展歷程與現象。研究的重點主要是在兒童表達請求的言語行為時所使用的語言形式，以及人際關係中會影響兒童禮貌表現的因素及其反應在語言形式的使用情形。透過對兩位以漢語為母語的兒童長期互動的觀察，本研究發現，兒童在表達請求時，採用多元的語言形式，包含祈使句、直述句、帶有語尾助詞的祈使句、以及表達個人慾望或需求的陳述句。考量這些語言形式使用的情境後進一步發現，兒童傾向在一般的日常對話中多以表達個人慾望的陳述句為表達請求的主要語言形式，而在合作互動的情境中，主要的請求語言形式則絕大多數為祈使句；這樣的語言功能分工，在兩歲半左右可以明顯觀察得到。 另外，透過兒童語言形式表達禮貌的觀察顯示，兒童普遍會依照人際互動的一些因素來選擇表達請求時所適用的語言形式，尤以有效性及地位高低為主要的兩個考量因素。觀察中發現，兒童大量使用祈使句及表達個人慾望需求的陳述句來表達請求，而其他的語言型式相對上則少得許多，主要的因素很有可能是這兩類的語言型式，在他們與父母互動中最能有效達到他們的溝通目的。此外，兒童也會依照他們在表達請求時與他們父母間的地位高低來考量請求所要使用的語言形式。儘管觀察結果指出，兒童傾向使用能有效達到溝通互動目的的語言形式來表達他們的請求，必要時，他們也會依照互動雙方的地位關係進行語言形式的微調，這樣的語言表現有明顯的系統性；而這樣的系統性，進而突顯了兒童約略在三歲前即對禮貌在語言形式使用的影響有了初步的系統與了解。 除了句法結構外，兒童也會透過詞彙單位來傳達他們在請求所應注意的禮貌，例如，必要時，他們會使用「幫」、「請」、及「我們」來修飾或削弱請求時可能對對方所造成的影響。這些詞彙的使用在發展上屬於略晚才習得的語言形式。 最後，研究的結果也指出，雖然兒童表達請求時，使用較為間接而有禮的語言形式，未必較能有效地達到他們的溝通目的，但是如果在表達請求的同時，也進一步說明理由者，達到溝通目的的機率則有明顯的增加。另外，從語言形式和表達請求的情境及人際地位的互動中發現，兒童表達請求的基本語言形式極有可能為表達個人的慾望與需求的陳述句，儘管祈使句在所觀察的語料中使用的頻率最高。這樣的論點，不但符合其他文獻中針對兒童語言發展的發現，也貼近兒童語言發展為連續過程的觀點，且也反應了人類語言發展的基本歷程。 / This study aims to investigate Mandarin-speaking children’s requests and their linguistic politeness so as to contribute to the understanding of children’s pragmatic development as well as linguistic development. The present study is mainly concerned with what linguistic devices children utilize to issue requests in spontaneous interactions with their parents and what interpersonal factors may have an influence on children’s uses of request forms. These two issues were discussed through examinations over children’s spontaneous interactions with their parents in family settings. On the basis of the longitudinal data produced by two children, it has been found that when requesting, children draw upon various linguistic devices, primarily including simple imperatives, WANT statements, imperatives with sentence-final particle, and declaratives. Such a variety of request forms can be observed from an early age on, at around two years old, but demonstrates no remarkable development, judged simply by these formal devices used at different ages. When situational contexts are also taken into account, nevertheless, a developmental pattern regarding the request forms is thus revealed. In terms of situational contexts, children are found to use simple imperatives primarily to convey their requests when involved in interactive activities with their parents, whereas they tend to utilize both simple imperatives and WANT statements when having common talks with their parents. Such a division of labor can be noticeably observed when children are about two and half years old. As to children’s linguistic politeness when making requests, the results reveal that children are aware of the influence of certain interactional and interpersonal factors on the appropriate use of linguistic forms. Children are inclined to draw upon comparatively more effective forms to issue their requests, and therefore children by and large request with pure imperatives and WANT statements, since these two request forms may effectively obtain the desirable compliance from their parents. In addition to effectiveness, children may also take interpersonal status and request cost into consideration when judging which request forms to use in the immediate context. Such consideration of interpersonal status when determining the appropriate request forms to use may thus reflects children’s awareness of politeness at around the age of three. In addition to syntactic structures, children are also found to draw upon lexical items to show their deference to politeness. Children may use such lexical forms as qing ‘please’, bang ‘to help with’ and women ‘let’s; we’ to mitigate the illocutionary force in their requests. These forms, despite their low frequencies in the data, may thus reveal children’s sensitivity to politeness when making such a face-threatening act as requests. The use of these polite lexical forms also discloses a comparatively late development in linguistic politeness; children may not use such polite forms until they reach the second half of their second year. A late development is also observed in the respect of children’s use of reasons to justify their requests. The results show that children’s justification may generally increase the effectiveness of their requests, but such use is infrequent and only observed at a later age, around the age of three. Finally, the results of the investigation into the data may suggest that WANT statements are highly likely an earlier developed request form and the prime linguistic forms children rely on to issue their requests, given the findings that children tend to request with WANT statements when interacting with parents at a lower status as a child and that children’s use of request forms are prone to the effect of interpersonal status. Such a suggestion may not only conform to the findings in previous studies with regard to children’s linguistic development in requests, but also accord with the general developmental pattern of human languages.

素養一詞原指的是讀與寫的概念，但隨著科技不斷地發展與更新，以及社會型態的變遷，素養的概念也隨之改變，並且吸收了更多新的元素，近十幾年來，將關的素養概念如資訊素養、媒介素養、電腦素養、科技素養不斷地發展，並且被整合進入課程當中，拓展且豐富了素養的概念。之後網際網路的出現更大幅改變了人們的生活，未來更有可能成為主導性的媒介與資訊工具，然而現今關於網路素養的概念大多停留在網路使用的能力與資訊搜尋的技術上，忽略了互動安全、法律規範、倫理道德等議題。 本研究嘗試以媒介素養的概念出發，將網路媒體素養的概念區分為以下幾個面向並加以探討：（一）網路使用能力；（二）資訊評估能力；（三）網路安全能力；（四）網路法律能力；（五）網路禮儀能力。並將這些概念發展為可測量的問卷題項，針對台北縣市國小高年級學童進行施測，希望能從中得出影響網路媒體素養高低的因素，結果發現學童在「網路使用能力」及「資訊評估能力」上表現，優於「網路安全能力」、「網路法律能力」及「網路禮儀能力」，而「居住地區」、「家長干涉參與程度」與「網路使用自我控制能力」均是影響網路媒體素養的重要變項。 因此建議教育機關與學校在實施網路教育時，除了使用能力的培養之外，也應多關注其他如網路倫理、網路禮儀等面向，而家長在家中也能多參與關心兒童的網路使用行為，以培養兒童更健全的網路媒體素養觀。

一、研究目的：試從圓仁日記「入唐求法巡禮行記」進一步了解唐代的社會，以及唐 代文化給予日本的影響． 二、文獻：以圓仁日記「入唐求法巡禮行記」為主，並參酌其他有關資料． 三、研究方法：從圓仁的日記□收集種種發生的事．分類而歸納成幾點，再現圓仁當 時在中國的生活．以叡山文庫所藏的足立喜六釋注，鹽入良道加以補訂，補注（日文 ）釋注本作為底本．故足立釋的原著，以東寺觀智院所藏的影印本（簡稱「東本」） 為底本，與諸本照對或嚴密的校訂，大都基於日本奈良國立博物館，小野勝年博士的 日文譯注本（簡稱「小野本」），因此關於原文的注，僅在足立譯與「小野本」不同 之處注記，其他全基於「小野本」． 四、研究內容：透過圓仁的日記，看當時的中日關係以及唐代中國的風俗儀式、官府 制度、政治措施、宗教、經濟問體等．第一章：圓仁法師的生平概略．第二章：中日 文化與遣唐史．第三章：圓仁與中國官員之交往．第四章：圓仁在唐所見的中國人生 活．第五章：圓仁所見的佛教．第六章：圓仁所見的唐代鎮壓佛教活動．第七章：圓 仁返日以後．第八章：結論． 五、研究結果：從日記與相關資料□得到了，我國歷來史家一些大都語焉不詳或忽視 的有關政治、經濟、宗教等的詳細資料．深理解了其日記具有廣泛的史料價值以及深 遠的歷史、文化影響，也同時對唐代社會多了一層認識，並對中日之間的關係多一層 了解．

近二十年來台灣經濟發展快速，國民生活所得提高，使得生活水平不斷上升，消費意識跟著抬頭，新公共管理學派「顧客導向」蔚為風潮，並同時強調價值的調和與課責的概念，因此「評鑑」是決定績效或品質的有效方法。而有鑑於過去殯葬市場資訊封閉，民眾（消費者）在資訊不完全、不對稱的情形，無從得知殯葬禮儀服務業者的優缺點、服務項目與收費、申訴管道等，復以民眾對於喪葬儀式與服務品質亦有所新要求，政府應如何實施殯葬評鑑以提供民眾資訊，加強業者的企業倫理與社會責任，己刻不容緩。 本文旨對台北市政府自民國89年實施殯葬禮儀服務業評鑑之情形做一探討，以質性研究及文獻分析對不同規模葬儀業者、評鑑承辦人員及殯葬消費者等360度績效評估方法進行訪談，以期了解葬儀業者是否依評鑑的要求進而提高其人員素質及服務品質；另民眾對殯葬消費方式的選擇是否會受評鑑結果的影響，以及對殯葬服務之滿意度，這些就成為目前政府與民眾所關注的重要議題，也是本文探討的核心焦點。 本研究發現：一、殯葬禮儀服務業者與殯葬消費者均對辦理殯葬評鑑表示接受或肯定；二、殯葬評鑑的確會提升葬儀業者的人員素質及服務品質；三、殯葬評鑑宣導不足；四、殯葬評鑑未達獎優懲劣效果。再依研究發現提出七項建議：：一、針對業者規模「量身訂做」評鑑評分表；二、評鑑委員的配置需以不同領域之專家學者同組；三、評鑑獎項多元化；四、提供多元管道，加強宣導殯葬評鑑的資訊；五、殯葬消費價格及項目公開化；六、合理對殯葬業者獎優懲劣；七、加強對業者及民眾之教育。 目前國內生死意識抬頭、且生死教育正在起步，惟國內外均無殯葬評鑑之相關研究，期望本研究之濫觴，促使政府及民眾對殯葬評鑑之重視。 / The living standard has risen dramatically together with its consumers’ rights consciousness due to the rapid economic growth and the raising income in recent twenty years in Taiwan. In addition, the customer orientation of new public management has become a tendency and the reconciliation of its value and the concept of accountability are highly valued at the same time. Therefore, it is an effective way to decide the result or the quality by the evaluation. In view of the information of funeral markets is closed in the past and customers cannot know the advantage, disadvantage, service, charge and grievance system of morticians under the situation with incomplete information. Moreover, customers have new demand for the funeral ceremonies and the quality of services. Hence, the government should implement the funeral evaluation immediately in order to provide more information to customers and reinforce the business ethics as well as social responsibility of undertakers. The research aims at exploring the situation of implementing the funeral service evaluation of Taipei city government since 1990. This paper researched qualitatively and analyzed the literature by interviewing different scale of undertakers, people who are responsible for the evaluation and customers with multi-source assessment model in order to understand if morticians enhance their quality and services according to the demand of the evaluation. On the other hand, whether the evaluation’s results influence customers’ choice of a particular funeral service provider and their satisfactoriness become the important issues which the government and the public concern a lot at present. Furthermore, they are also the main focuses that this paper discusses about. It is found that both morticians and customers show their acceptance or approval of the funeral service evaluation. In addition, the funeral service evaluation indeed raises the quality and services of undertakers. Next, the education of the funeral service evaluation is not enough. Last, the funeral service evaluation does not achieve its effect of rewarding and punishing. Furthermore, seven suggestions are presented according to the research. First, make appropriate evaluation form in accordance with the scale of morticians. Second, the arrangement of evaluation committee members should be composed of scholars and experts in different fields. Third, the evaluation reward can be diversified. Fourth, provide various ways to reinforce the instruction of the funeral service evaluation information. Fifth, the prices and details of funeral services should come into the open. Sixth, reward the good and punish the bad undertakers reasonably. Finally, reinforce the education of morticians and the public. The public pay more attention to the consciousness of life and death at present and the education of life and death is beginning but there is no related research about the funeral service evaluation in Taiwan or abroad. The researcher hopes the source of this study will promote the government and the public value the funeral service evaluation.

本研究旨在探討中美文化差異對於建議語行為的影響，並且進一步探究文化差異以及社會地位、人際熟悉度等情境因素如何影響台灣英語學習者的建議語行為。本研究的三組受試者分別為35位英語母語人士、35位中文母語人士、35位英文程度佳的台灣英語學習者。語料蒐集工具為言談情境填充問卷(DCT)。所蒐集的語料針對受試者的建議語策略使用來進行量化以及質化的分析。 研究結果顯示，中文組的建議語行為比英語組來的直接。而學習者組在建議語的策略使用上則近似於中文組，也表現出比英語組直接的建議語行為。這樣的結果很可能由中美文化的差異所導致。此外，台灣英語學習者的建議語行為受到了文化差異的影響，表現出來自於母語的語用移轉(pragmatic transfer)，除了語用移轉所造成的語用失敗(pragmatic failure)之外，研究者還發現兩項學習者在建議語使用上的語用失敗，分別是：教學引起的誘發性錯誤(teaching-induced errors)，以及使用過多文字(waffle phenomenon)。有鑑於這些語用失敗，本研究提出兩點教學上的啟示。一、語言教師必須引導學生瞭解文化差異對於跨文化溝通的影響。二、語言教師以及教材編者必須提供充足的語境訊息(contextual information)以教導英語學習者如何適宜地的表達。 / The present study aimed to explore the cross-cultural differences between the suggestion behaviors by Chinese and Americans, and further investigated how the differences affect Taiwanese EFL learners’ interlanguage suggestion under two social variables. Three groups of participants were concerned in this study. They were 35 native speakers of American English, 35 native speakers of Mandarin Chinese and 35 Taiwanese EFL learners. The data were collected by written DCT elicitation questionnaire. Participants’ responses were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively to see how the three groups of participants employed the suggestion head act strategy, hedging devices, supportive moves and suggestion patterns. The results showed that the Chinese group was more direct than the American group. Besides, the learner group approximated the Chinese group and thus also employed more direct suggestion patterns and strategies than the American group did. This may be possibly due to the cultural differences between the Chinese and the American culture. This study also found that the EFL learners transferred both their native socio-cultural norms and pragmalinguistic conventions into their suggestion behaviors. In addition to pragmatic transfer, two more pragmatic failures were found; they were teaching-induced errors and the waffle phenomenon. With regard to these failures, this study suggested that language teachers should make learners aware of the importance of cultural differences in cross-cultural communication. Besides, teachers and language materials designers should provide as much contextual information as possible so that learners can learn the appropriate form or structure for its corresponding function.

「社基保育」（Community-Based Conservation）是強調「由下到上」（bottom-up）的自然資源管理模式。透過在地民眾的參與（participation），不僅減少政府在自然資源管理的支出，形成為社區居民認可的資源管理模式；更重要的，透過居民參與，社基保育連結地方自治（self-governance）與民主（democracy），實踐公共財合產（coproduction）與增效（synergy）的效果。因此社基保育不僅有生態保育的優勢，更有政治與經濟面的討論意義。 以往對社基保育的研究，多以鄉村或原住民地區的資源管理為研究範例，這些地區藉由居民的共議或傳統文化，獲得居民認同，刺激居民主動參與。然而若將研究焦點轉向都市地區，社基保育能否發揮相同功效？透過本研究的兩個案例—台北市富陽自然生態公園與台南市巴克禮紀念公園，社基保育在都市社區中仍有實行的可能。但相較鄉村與原民社區，都市社基保育的參與者更多，彼此溝通協調需要更多成本，形成集體行動也更不容易。本研究兩個案例中的里長，皆發揮動員居民的功能，並代表居民和其他參與者如政府、非營利組織溝通，降低居民參與的成本，營造居民集體行動的雛形。而政府、非營利組織與居民在社基保育過程中的關係，將影響社基保育能否達成在地落實的目標。 / Community-Based Conservation is the model emphasizing “bottom-up” power of managing natural resources. It reduces the government’s cost of resource management, and becomes a widely accepted model by the locals through their participation. Furthermore, it combines Coproduction, Synergy, local Self-Governance, and Democracy Governance through the locals’ direct participation. Therefore, Community-Based Conservation not only has advantage in ecological conservation, but also shows importance in politics and economics. Previously, the researches on Community-Based Conservation often take resource management models in rural and indigenous areas as their cases. These models obtain the residents’ identity and stimulate their active participation by their discussion or the influence of traditional culture. But if we transfer the researches’ focus to urban areas, can Community-Based Conservation play the same role? Through the two cases in this thesis: Fuyang Eco Park in Taipei and Barclay Memorial Park in Tainan, it is possible to implement Community-Based Conservation in urban areas. However, compared with rural and indigenous areas, there are more participators in urban areas. It costs more to make them coordinate and communicate with each other well. Consequently, it is very important to inspire the locals to participate in Community-Based Conservation. In these two cases, both Neighborhood magistrates construct the model by mobilizing the residents, communicating with different participators such as the government, non-profit organizations, and reducing the cost of their participation. The relationship between the government, non-profit organizations and the residents in the process of Community-Based Conservation will affect the fulfillment in urban areas.

在台灣，由於中學英語課程的設計大都是考試導向，教學過程中幾乎完全著重於語言形式的教導，而忽略語言使用功能的重要性，所以台灣的英語學習者在中學階段很少有機會接受語言功能教學。本研究主要是要調查間接性以及禮貌性這兩個語用功能對於邀請句式選擇的適當性是否有所影響，進而調查語言功能教學對於本國的中學生學習英語的可行性與成效性。 本研究先分析了20位美國人在間接性與禮貌性的考量之下，對邀請句式的選擇為何，以便建立美國文化在這方面的規範。然後，再以此規範，設計一套四個單元的語言功能教學課程。有135位來自台灣北部兩所高中的高一學生接受了這項課程。這兩所學校的基測成績高低不同；每間學校各有兩班學生分別接受以功能為主的教學和以結構為主的教學。 前測及後測的結果顯示語言功能教學有效地改善了台灣學生的語言功能表現。再者，語言形式選擇的適當性的確受制於間接性及禮貌性的宰制。此外，情態策略也被驗証比直接策略及暗示策略要來得困難及複雜許多。又，基測成績較高的學校的學生比基測成績較低的學校的學生在學習語言功能的過程中表現較好。整體而言，實驗結果顯示，對於以英語為外國語的學生而言，語言功能教學是有效的、可行的，也是必須的。 另外，雖然台灣學生較偏好結構為主的教學法，但是本研究發現功能為主的教學法比結構為主的教學法成效較佳。最後，從學生對於本課程的評量得知，雖然學生們覺得語言功能學習法不是很有趣，但是他們大多認為這樣的教學方法對學習英語是有幫助的，而且是重要的。 / EFL learners in Taiwan are hardly taught language functions in high schools since most of the English courses are designed in accordance with the examination-oriented goal, which is far more focused on teaching language form than on teaching language use. The purpose of the present study is to investigate whether indirectness and politeness would influence appropriate linguistic choice for invitation, and to investigate the effectiveness of teaching language functions to high school students in EFL classrooms. In this study, 20 American subjects’ ratings of eight linguistic forms for invitation by indirectness and politeness were analyzed to obtain the American norm, based on which a four-unit program of teaching language functions was designed. 138 senior high school students from two senior high schools in northern Taiwan took a pre-test before receiving the instruction and a post-test afterwards. Two classes from each school received function-based teaching method and structure-based teaching method respectively. The results of the pre-test and the post-test, in comparison with the American norm, indicate that teaching language functions is effective in improving Chinese students’ competence of the functional aspect of English. Next, the test results verify that the appropriate choice of linguistic forms is indeed influenced by politeness and indirectness, although these two functional factors are not in a systematic relationship. Moreover, Modality strategy is found to be more difficult and more complex than Direct strategy and Hinting strategy. In addition, although the students from the school of high BCT scores tend to perform better than those from the school of low BCT scores, students of both schools made significant improvement in learning the concepts of indirectness and politeness. The findings given above imply that teaching language functions to high school students in EFL classrooms is feasible, necessary, and effective. In addition, according to the results of the general evaluations to this teaching program offered by the students and the English teachers involved, although the Taiwanese students showed preference to structure-based method, function-based method is verified to be more effective. In conclusion, the students’ and the teachers’ evaluations of this program indicate that learning language functions may not be interesting, but it is helpful and important to the students.

本研究從Leech的「禮貌原則」和Grice的「合作原則」切入討論台灣著名的反迷（anti-fan）虛擬聚集處（virtual togetherness）「吐槽版」中的異議表達。研究者初步觀察吐槽版發現，該版呈現高度言論趨同的現象、鮮見異議表達。過往反迷相關文獻指出，相對於外在強勢的主流演藝圈文化，反迷意識到自己的小眾性、弱勢性，因而可能發展出成員間緊密的小團體情誼、友善互助的人際關係。研究者欲探究，在吐槽版高度趨同的發言氛圍下，版友該如何表達異議？什麼樣的異議表達方式符合吐槽版的禮貌標準？此外，吐槽版發言高度趨同、鮮見異議、鮮見網路戰火（flaming），確為出自於版友間同仇敵愾的團結情誼、友善的人際關係嗎？ 研究發現，吐槽版版友間人際關係淡漠，完全推翻研究者對於吐槽版反迷的想像。吐槽版版友雖偏好採用溫和、委婉的方式表其異見，但若時機適當，仍會出現相對尖銳的異議；且不乏針對第一輪發言者立論的「手法」表達異議，帶有「找碴」的意味。此外，版友在表達異議時，不時出現「非護航」自清，版友不自覺會將「表達異議」等同於「護航」。「禁止護航」這版規才是約束吐槽版版友異議表達的最主要力量，而非版內的人際關係。「禁止護航」保障了版友完整情緒發洩的權利，版友在此可單方面地表達對於演藝對象的厭惡之情而不會受到他人反駁。吐槽版版友無意與他人進行「雙向溝通」，完整的、單方面的「情緒宣洩」才是他們對於吐槽版的期待。版友無意集結版眾力量共同對抗演藝圈，他們對抗的其實是「理性溝通」的概念。研究者發現，在網路社群、虛擬聚集中，人們並非只需要理性溝通，「情緒發洩」也是人們重視的發言需求。

人們常因為禮貌或其他因素避免對立的情況發生。然而，異議在我們日常溝通中又扮演了不可或缺的角色。之前，眾多對於異議及其相關語言活動的研究均未曾探究異議內容的本質(對於事實內容的異議或對於議題評估的異議)與異議的建構有何關係。此外，台灣鮮少研究社會因素對異議建構方式的影響。基於上述不足，本研究旨在探討何種異議(內容異議或評估異議)在日常生活中較常出現，不同異議類別的語言形式與語用策略為何，以及年齡是否會影響異議的數量多寡與建構方式。本研究採用言談分析(conversational analysis, CA)作為研究框架，並以言語行為理論(speech act theory),合作原則(Cooperative Principles)及禮貌理論(Politeness Principles)為理論基礎。 本研究以12份日常交談為語料，進行異議分析。在這12份語料中，8組對話者為同齡(4組年長者，4組年輕者)，4組對話者為跨齡。在分析過程中，先依異議的本質進行分類，進而分析討論異議中所使用的語言形式、語用策略、社會因素(年齡)，以及四者彼此之間的互動。 研究結果顯示，第一，人們使用評估異議的頻率為內容異議的兩倍之多。個人主觀式遠多於社會文化評估的異議。第二，就語言形式而言，在異議的建構中，否定句、預告詞及肯定句(依此順序)的使用頻率高於其他語言形式。然而，語言行式的選擇會隨異議的本質而有所改變。內容異議通常使用直接句型，如否定句與肯定句；評估異議則平均使用直接性的否定句與間接性的預告詞。第三，就語用策略而言，更正、解釋與質疑(依此順序)的使用頻率高於其他語用策略。語用策略的選擇亦隨異議本質的不同而有所改變。超過一半的內容異議使用更正策略，但在評估異議中，更正、解釋與質疑的使用頻率相當。第四，在評估異議中，在各個語用策略中，語言形式的種類比內容異議多。這個結果影射著評估異議對面子的威脅程度可能比內容異議來得嚴重。因此，在進行評估異議時，語言形式與語用策略的挑選用必須格外注意。第五，年齡與異議的建構有顯著的相關性。同齡組比跨齡組更容易產生異議。最後，在異議中，聽話者的角色比說話者的角色更具有影響力。 / Although people try to avoid opposition for the sake of politeness or other reasons, disagreement, which may threaten interpersonal relationship and the success of communication, is inevitable in our daily life. Previous studies on disagreement (including dispute, argument, conflict, etc.) have not probe into the nature of the referential content—whether it is content-based (in this study, C-disagreement) or evaluation-based (in this study, E-disagreement), and the influences of social factors on disagreement have rarely been examined in Taiwan. Therefore, the purposes of this study are to see what type of disagreement are most likely to occur in daily conversations and to examine whether age is an influential factor on linguistic choices for in disagreement in Chinese society. This study uses the framework of conversational analysis (CA), and adopts speech act theory (Austin, 1962; Searle, 1975), Cooperative Principles (Grice, 1975) and Politeness Principles (Brown and Levinson’s, 1978, 1987; Leech, 1983) as the theoretical foundations. 12 conversations by speakers of 8 same-age groups (including 4 old groups and 4 young groups) and 4 cross-age groups were examined for disagreement. Related data are categorized, analyzed, and discussed by types of disagreement, linguistic markers, pragmatic strategies, social variable (in this study, age), and the interaction among the four. The results of the data analyses show, first, people adopt nearly twice more E-disagreement than C-disagreement; moreover, E-disagreement based on personal judgment emerges more often than E-disagreement based on socio-cultural evaluation. Second, for linguistic markers, negation, pre-announcement marker, and affirmative (in this order) are adopted more in disagreement. However, preferences for linguistic markers change according to types of disagreement. In C-disagreement, direct syntactic markers, such as negation and affirmative, are used more frequently than the others; however, in E-disagreement, direct negation (syntactic) and indirect pre-announcement (lexical) are used with equal frequencies. Third, among pragmatic strategies, correction, account, and challenge (in this order) are adopted more frequently than the others. The usage of pragmatic strategies varies with types of disagreement. In C-disagreement, correction is highly adopted. But in E-disagreement, correction, account, and challenge are used with equal percentages. Fourth, the fact that more varieties of linguistic markers are used in each pragmatic strategy in E-disagreement than in C-disagreement may imply impoliteness, since face-threatening force is more serious in E-disagreement than in C-disagreement, which, in turn, indicates that more careful manipulation is needed in using E-disagreement. Fifth, age is influential in disagreement. More disagreements are found in the same-age groups than in the cross-age groups. Last, the hearer’s role is found to be more influential than the speaker’s role.

在第二語言的學習過程中，我們經常會發現，母語的表達習慣和方式對第二語言學習者存在著一定的影響。學習者往往對目的語中某些與自己母語不同的表達習慣和方式，感到不解與困惑，而在使用目的語進行表達時，又常常會不自覺地套用母語的表達習慣和方式，結果常造成溝通或學習上的障礙。筆者剛到臺灣時就常親生感受其似的困擾。 隨著中國大陸經濟起飛及對外華語教學事業的發展，以及近年來，國外第二語言習得理論的引進，以華語作為第二語言習得的研究領域也不斷擴大。對於第二語言習得，筆者認為該重視的是要對學習者的語言能力進行描寫和說明，同時必須不斷地給學習者刺激並激發其學習上的成就感。為了達到此目的，教學者除了必須熟悉聽說讀寫等教學法之外，也須瞭解學習者的環境背景、心理形態、以及因華語與其母語之間的差異而易導致的各方面錯誤傾向等。 本論文主要參考前人探討日語與華語在稱呼、寒暄問候、感謝、道歉以及委婉表達等研究成果作為基礎，並在此基礎之上補充筆者在臺灣親身經驗過的觀察及分析探討日華表達習慣之差異，以作為對日華語教學參考之用。分析探討的主要內容分為以下幾部分：（一）日華禮貌概念及文化分析；（二）日華稱呼的對比；（三）日華寒暄問候對比；（四）日華感謝及道歉方式對比；（五）日華委婉表達；（六）針對日本學生譁語教學上的應用。藉此研究，我們將分析比較現今華語及日語中，華人和日本人對禮貌表達的看法和差異及如何活用在華語文教學。 本文研究日華語禮貌表達習慣之共性及差異性，並探討造成日華語溝通障礙的原因。筆者所蒐集到的文獻資料以中國大陸學者的著作為主，而華人之間的表達習慣依其所區域仍存在著些許差異，因此在此方面筆者輔以本身在臺灣的生活經驗與觀察對照。 期待研究成果可以應用在對日華語教學上，以便提供華語教師相關建議，協助華語教師瞭解其日籍學生，並促進日籍華語學習者瞭解華人文化，以助其成功掌握華語禮貌策略與在交際中的應用。