Analisa o impacto da convergência tecnológica na atual classificação do setor de comunicação do GATS e, em que medida tal impacto altera os compromissos assumidos pelos Membros da OMC nos serviços de telecomunicação e audiovisual, e em particular no que respeita ao conteúdo audiovisual. Ademais, investiga os interesses brasileiros na questão diante das iniciativas governamentais para a regulação do conteúdo audiovisual. Com base na experiência profissional da autora na OMC e no setor de comunicação no Brasil, da leitura de doutrina nacional e estrangeira sobre o tema proposto e de conversas com negociadores brasileiros na OMC, o trabalho verifica primeiramente a estrutura básica do GATS, seu histórico de negociações, indicando as motivações para a inclusão no Acordo do setor de comunicação, bem como sua arquitetura organizacional que é fundamental para a flexibilidade conferida aos Membros. Trata, ainda, do controle pela OMC na aplicação das obrigações concernentes ao GATS. Posteriormente, discute o tratamento dado ao setor de comunicação e, em particular, aos subsetores de telecomunicação e audiovisual, bem como suas diferenças e inter-relações, verificando exemplos práticos do impacto da convergência, bem como da internet. Na sequência, aborda dispositivos do GATS que preservam a capacidade dos Membros de eleger políticas regulatórias, examinando o artigo VI(4), pois garante um equilíbrio entre a premissa de liberalização comercial da OMC e o direito à preservação da capacidade regulatória dos Membros. Verifica, também, o conceito de regulamentação doméstica no GATS e nos direitos brasileiro e comparado, vislumbrando o alcance da regulação de conteúdo audiovisual no Acordo, e se, dada a natureza especial que a ele se atribui, deve ou não ser tratado de modo especial. Para tanto, analisa a distinção entre os enfoques cultural e econômico protagonizados, respectivamente, por União Europeia e Estados Unidos, e a influência da Convenção da UNESCO sobre a Proteção e Promoção da Diversidade das Expressões Culturais nos compromissos em audiovisual, mesmo sem ser parte integrante do GATS. Mostra, também, o atual cenário sobre conteúdo audiovisual no GATS, examinando os marcos regulatórios norte-americano e europeu, inclusive no tocante às cotas de conteúdo nacional, bem como a influência desses marcos nas negociações, inclusive no âmbito de propostas apresentadas na Rodada Doha. Verifica, ainda, que há poucos compromissos e muitas isenções à cláusula de nação mais favorecida inseridas nas Listas Nacionais, o que leva ao exame da Lista brasileira para o setor de comunicação. Examina, na sequência, as decisões do Órgão de Solução de Controvérsias da OMC que poderão ser utilizadas em futuras controvérsias sobre o setor. Por fim, trata do marco regulatório sobre conteúdo audiovisual no direito brasileiro, observando os efeitos da convergência, além de estudar se a legislação atual comporta as mudanças por ela provocadas. Para tanto, analisa a atuação das agências reguladoras e Ministérios que disciplinam o setor da comunicação face às garantias constitucionais da liberdade de expressão e acesso à informação para entender a relação entre conteúdo e regulação e verificar quais situações justificam a regulação. No contexto, verifica a iniciativa brasileira quanto à criação de cotas de conteúdo nacional. / This thesis analyses the impact of technological convergence at the current classification of the communications sector at the GATS and to which extent it changes the commitments made by the WTO Members at the telecommunications and audiovisual services, in particular regarding audiovisual content. In addition, it examines the Brazilian interests regarding governmental initiatives for audiovisual content regulation. Based on the professional experience of the author at the WTO and the communications sector in Brazil, a considerable amount of foreign and Brazilian literature about the proposed subject and conversations with Brazilian negotiators at the WTO, the thesis firstly analyses the basic structure of the GATS, contextualizes its negotiations, pointing out the motivations to include the communications sector and verifies its organizational architecture, which is fundamental to preserve the flexibility granted to WTO Members. Secondly, it discusses the treatment given to the communications sector, mainly to the subsectors of telecommunications and audiovisual, as well as the differences and correlations among those subsectors. It also verifies practical examples of the impact of technological convergence and the internet at the sector. Thirdly, it addresses GATS provisions preserving Members capacity to choose regulatory policies. The work analyses article VI (4) which guarantees the balance between WTO commercial liberalization and the right to preserve Members regulatory capacity. Also, it addresses the domestic regulation concept at the GATS and at Brazilian and foreign laws in order to understand the extent of audiovisual content regulation at the referred agreement and whether audiovisual content should be treated in a special way. In this sense, it studies the distinction between cultural and economic approaches defended respectively by the European Union and the USA and the influence of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions on the commitments made for audiovisual services, even without being part of the GATS. Fourthly, it shows the current GATS scenario on audiovisual content by examining the European and the US legal frameworks, including content quotas, and the influence of said frameworks at the negotiations, including as per the Members proposals submitted at the Doha Round. It also verifies that there are few commitments and many exemptions to the MNF clause listed in the National Schedules of specific commitments, therein included the Brazilian schedule for the communications sector. The thesis also discusses certain decisions of the WTO Dispute Settlement Body which could be used in future disputes related to the sector. Finally, it addresses the Brazilian legal framework on audiovisual content, identifying the effects of convergence, and examines whether the current legal framework supports the changes caused by convergence. In this sense, the work analyses the role of regulatory agencies and ministries ruling on the communications sector in Brazil vis à vis the constitutional guarantees of freedom of expression and access to information so as to understand the relation between content and regulation and to verify which situations justify content regulation. In this context, it verifies the Brazilian content quotas initiative.

Analisa o impacto da convergência tecnológica na atual classificação do setor de comunicação do GATS e, em que medida tal impacto altera os compromissos assumidos pelos Membros da OMC nos serviços de telecomunicação e audiovisual, e em particular no que respeita ao conteúdo audiovisual. Ademais, investiga os interesses brasileiros na questão diante das iniciativas governamentais para a regulação do conteúdo audiovisual. Com base na experiência profissional da autora na OMC e no setor de comunicação no Brasil, da leitura de doutrina nacional e estrangeira sobre o tema proposto e de conversas com negociadores brasileiros na OMC, o trabalho verifica primeiramente a estrutura básica do GATS, seu histórico de negociações, indicando as motivações para a inclusão no Acordo do setor de comunicação, bem como sua arquitetura organizacional que é fundamental para a flexibilidade conferida aos Membros. Trata, ainda, do controle pela OMC na aplicação das obrigações concernentes ao GATS. Posteriormente, discute o tratamento dado ao setor de comunicação e, em particular, aos subsetores de telecomunicação e audiovisual, bem como suas diferenças e inter-relações, verificando exemplos práticos do impacto da convergência, bem como da internet. Na sequência, aborda dispositivos do GATS que preservam a capacidade dos Membros de eleger políticas regulatórias, examinando o artigo VI(4), pois garante um equilíbrio entre a premissa de liberalização comercial da OMC e o direito à preservação da capacidade regulatória dos Membros. Verifica, também, o conceito de regulamentação doméstica no GATS e nos direitos brasileiro e comparado, vislumbrando o alcance da regulação de conteúdo audiovisual no Acordo, e se, dada a natureza especial que a ele se atribui, deve ou não ser tratado de modo especial. Para tanto, analisa a distinção entre os enfoques cultural e econômico protagonizados, respectivamente, por União Europeia e Estados Unidos, e a influência da Convenção da UNESCO sobre a Proteção e Promoção da Diversidade das Expressões Culturais nos compromissos em audiovisual, mesmo sem ser parte integrante do GATS. Mostra, também, o atual cenário sobre conteúdo audiovisual no GATS, examinando os marcos regulatórios norte-americano e europeu, inclusive no tocante às cotas de conteúdo nacional, bem como a influência desses marcos nas negociações, inclusive no âmbito de propostas apresentadas na Rodada Doha. Verifica, ainda, que há poucos compromissos e muitas isenções à cláusula de nação mais favorecida inseridas nas Listas Nacionais, o que leva ao exame da Lista brasileira para o setor de comunicação. Examina, na sequência, as decisões do Órgão de Solução de Controvérsias da OMC que poderão ser utilizadas em futuras controvérsias sobre o setor. Por fim, trata do marco regulatório sobre conteúdo audiovisual no direito brasileiro, observando os efeitos da convergência, além de estudar se a legislação atual comporta as mudanças por ela provocadas. Para tanto, analisa a atuação das agências reguladoras e Ministérios que disciplinam o setor da comunicação face às garantias constitucionais da liberdade de expressão e acesso à informação para entender a relação entre conteúdo e regulação e verificar quais situações justificam a regulação. No contexto, verifica a iniciativa brasileira quanto à criação de cotas de conteúdo nacional. / This thesis analyses the impact of technological convergence at the current classification of the communications sector at the GATS and to which extent it changes the commitments made by the WTO Members at the telecommunications and audiovisual services, in particular regarding audiovisual content. In addition, it examines the Brazilian interests regarding governmental initiatives for audiovisual content regulation. Based on the professional experience of the author at the WTO and the communications sector in Brazil, a considerable amount of foreign and Brazilian literature about the proposed subject and conversations with Brazilian negotiators at the WTO, the thesis firstly analyses the basic structure of the GATS, contextualizes its negotiations, pointing out the motivations to include the communications sector and verifies its organizational architecture, which is fundamental to preserve the flexibility granted to WTO Members. Secondly, it discusses the treatment given to the communications sector, mainly to the subsectors of telecommunications and audiovisual, as well as the differences and correlations among those subsectors. It also verifies practical examples of the impact of technological convergence and the internet at the sector. Thirdly, it addresses GATS provisions preserving Members capacity to choose regulatory policies. The work analyses article VI (4) which guarantees the balance between WTO commercial liberalization and the right to preserve Members regulatory capacity. Also, it addresses the domestic regulation concept at the GATS and at Brazilian and foreign laws in order to understand the extent of audiovisual content regulation at the referred agreement and whether audiovisual content should be treated in a special way. In this sense, it studies the distinction between cultural and economic approaches defended respectively by the European Union and the USA and the influence of the UNESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions on the commitments made for audiovisual services, even without being part of the GATS. Fourthly, it shows the current GATS scenario on audiovisual content by examining the European and the US legal frameworks, including content quotas, and the influence of said frameworks at the negotiations, including as per the Members proposals submitted at the Doha Round. It also verifies that there are few commitments and many exemptions to the MNF clause listed in the National Schedules of specific commitments, therein included the Brazilian schedule for the communications sector. The thesis also discusses certain decisions of the WTO Dispute Settlement Body which could be used in future disputes related to the sector. Finally, it addresses the Brazilian legal framework on audiovisual content, identifying the effects of convergence, and examines whether the current legal framework supports the changes caused by convergence. In this sense, the work analyses the role of regulatory agencies and ministries ruling on the communications sector in Brazil vis à vis the constitutional guarantees of freedom of expression and access to information so as to understand the relation between content and regulation and to verify which situations justify content regulation. In this context, it verifies the Brazilian content quotas initiative.

O presente estudo tem dois objetivos. O primeiro (1) é substantivo: contribuir com o debate sobre globalização financeira, ajudando a nele incorporar uma dimensão que parecia um pouco fora de foco em diversas discussões a dimensão jurídico-institucional empírica. O segundo (2) é metodológico, e não se relaciona diretamente com o objeto da pesquisa: ajudar a incorporar ao estudo do direito no Brasil a utilização de certas técnicas empíricas que permitiriam o exercício mais freqüente do que se será chamado aqui de ceticismo esclarecido pela empiria o salutar questionamento de afirmações doutrinais peremptórias com o auxílio de evidência empírica. Em relação ao objetivo (1), apresenta-se a seguinte tese. A globalização financeira é produto de diversos processos heterogêneos de cooperação internacional, políticas governamentais, reformas legislativas e estratégias políticas. Tais processos têm determinantes diversos, e objetivos variados, não apenas liberalização. De fato, mera liberalização unilateral não daria suporte suficiente ao aumento de fluxos financeiros transfronteiriços a globalização só pôde e só pode ocorrer em vista da criação de uma diversidade de estruturas internacionais, incluídas aí as bilaterais, plurilaterais e multilaterais. Estas resultaram em uma densa malha jurídico-institucional que, para ser criada, demandou mudanças por diversas vezes dolorosas e custosas aos países que as implantaram, assim como grandes esforços de negociação. Somente porque existe essa malha jurídica, cuja origem é a atividade política dos governos nacionais, é que investidores e empresas financeiras puderam e podem cruzar fronteiras, deter ativos no estrangeiro, e fazê-los circular em nível global. A globalização é resultado, não da abdicação e retração dos Estados, mas do ativo engajamento de seus governos na persecução de objetivos de política pública. Trata-se, portanto, de uma reação a interpretações concorrentes, segundo as quais a globalização financeira estaria sendo causada pela retração dos Estados Nacionais, que estariam se retirando da atividade regulatória, de forma geral, e da regulação das finanças, de formas mais específicas. A primeira parte consiste de dois capítulos discutindo os arranjos jurídico-institucionais que geraram a globalização financeira. A metodologia utilizada foi primordialmente qualitativa. Realizaram-se reconstruções institucionais comparadas, discutindo a evolução de certos arranjos de governança do sistema financeiro. Dois conjuntos de análises de casos foram realizados: (a) uma sobre a formação comparada de Sistemas Financeiros Nacionais, e (b) outra sobre processos comparados de integração financeira. A segunda parte consiste de um capítulo discutindo correlações entre indicadores econômicos e processos de globalização financeira. Aplicaram-se métodos econométricos sobre uma grande base de dados reunida e criada exclusivamente para esta pesquisa. / This study has two objectives. The first (1) is substantive: to contribute to the debate on globalization by helping to incorporate to it a dimension that has been somewhat left aside in many discussions the legal-institutional dimension. The second (2) is methodological, and not directly related to the subject of research: to help incorporating to the study of law in Brazil the use of certain empirical techniques that allow the exercise of what can be called a skepticism enlightened by the empiricism - the healthy questioning of doctrinal statements with the aid of empirical evidence. In relation of (1), the following thesis is advanced. Financial globalization is the product of several heterogeneous processes of international cooperation, government policies, legislative reforms and legal strategies. These processes have several determinants, and varied objectives, not just liberalization. In fact, a mere unilateral liberalization process would not give enough support to increase cross-border financial flows - globalization could only and may only occur in view of a diversity of international structures, including bilateral, plurilateral and multilateral agreements. These resulted in a dense mesh of legal and institutional structures, that to be created, demanded changes several times painful and costly to the countries that have implemented, as well as major efforts to negotiate. Only because of such legal tissue, whose origin is the political activity of national governments, is that investors and financial institutions could and can cross borders, holding assets abroad, and circulate them globally. Globalization is the result, not the abdication of the retraction, but the active engagement of governments in their pursuit of public policy objectives. The thesis is therefore a reaction to competing interpretations, under which financial globalization was being caused by the retraction of nation states, they were withdrawing from regulatory activity, in general, and regulation of finance, more specific forms. The first part consists of two chapters discussing the legal and institutional arrangements that led to financial globalization. The methodology was primarily qualitative. There were institutional compared reconstructions, discussing the evolution of certain governance arrangements of the financial system. Two sets of case studies were conducted: (a) training on a comparison of national financial systems, and (b) the other on the comparative analysis of financial integration. The second part consists of a chapter discussing correlations between economic indicators and processes of financial globalization. Were applied econometric methods on a large database collected and created exclusively for this research.

O presente estudo pode ser considerado parte da linha de pesquisa Comércio, Direitos Humanos e Desenvolvimento, temática recorrente que procura entender e analisar os impactos do comércio internacional na realização dos direitos humanos e no desenvolvimento, além de propor alternativas sobre o inter-relacionamento das três áreas. A integração positiva entre elas depende de muito mais do que a adoção de medidas preventivas contra os possíveis prejuízos advindos da liberalização. Um sistema de comércio internacional que seja realmente favorável aos direitos humanos e ao desenvolvimento entendido não apenas como benefício econômico, mas principalmente como desenvolvimento social, político e cultural , deve ir além e atuar de forma positiva e não passiva. Neste sentido, não se pode considerar a liberalização dos serviços educacionais no âmbito da Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC), se não forem conduzidas de forma a contribuir para a realização do direito ao desenvolvimento em todas as nações e a todos os indivíduos. No entanto, evidenciada existência de um atual mercado educacional, deve-se buscar alternativas para colocar a realização do direito ao desenvolvimento um direito humano que garante a realização de diversos outros direitos humanos no topo dos objetivos do comércio internacional. Assim, é obrigatório que se procure encontrar uma maneira de negociar o setor de serviços educacionais que não prejudique e ainda colabore para uma implementação mais efetiva do direito ao desenvolvimento. Objetivando cooperar com este relevante e necessário propósito, este estudo discute a atual relação entre o comércio internacional de serviços educacionais e o direito ao desenvolvimento, bem como analisa a importância da educação para os direitos humanos e o desenvolvimento. Afinal, a educação deve ser vista como uma mercadoria liberalizável ou deve ser tratada, acima de tudo, como um direito humano e um bem público, que deve ser protegido? / This study can be considered as part of the current research under Trade, Human Rights and Development, that intends to understand and evaluate the impacts of international trade at human rights and development, besides proposing alternatives to relate all three areas. Integrating international trade, realization of human rights, and development depend on much more than just preventing consequential damages of trade liberalization. An international trade system that is really favorable to development considered not only as economical gain, but also as social, political and cultural development and human rights must go further, and act positively rather than just passively. In this scenario, negotiating education services at the World Trade Organization (WTO) in a way that does not contribute to the realization of the right to development in all nations and for all human beings can not be considered welcome or even feasible. However, bearing in mind that there is already an education market, reality claims for alternatives to put the realization of the right to development as a human right that guarantees several other fundamental rights at the top of international trade goals. Therefore, finding a way of liberalizing education services that does not hinder and yet cooperates to a more effective implementation of the right to development is now mandatory. Aiming to cooperate with this relevant and necessary purpose, this study discuss the current relation between international trade in education services and the right to development, as well as the importance of education to human rights and development. After all, should education be seen as international trade commodity or should it be treated, above all, as a human right and a public good in need of protection?

The purpose of this essay is to illustrate the debate of water politics and privatisation of water distribution. My method is debate analysis and qualitative idea analysis and for my essay I used three books that try to persuade the reader that his or her idea is the best for this water crisis. My main question is to illustrate the debate concerning water privatisations. I will also look at the arguments for or against privatisations and finally determine how the authors think the state should act towards this subject. The first book I used was Vandana Shivas “Water Wars” that when published started an international discussion about the water privatisations. The next book was Ann-Christin Sjölander Hollands book “Vatten rättighet eller handelsvara?” who just like Shiva is negative against market solutions. The third book was “Vatten till salu” by Fredrik Segerfeldt. He is positive to both privatisations and deregulations in the public sector. Shiva considers trans national companies one of the biggest enemies for the development countries and a source for this problem. Her opinion is that agreements like GATS only benefit the already rich. The solution for the water crisis in her opinion is to legislate against foreign companies right to operate in poor countries. Her wish is to keep the water distribution in the state or towns own hands. Sjölander Holland dislike big companies as well but her opinion are that a privatisation can work if the contract with the state is well designed without corruption. However the state should handle water delivery, not companies thirsting for economical gain. Segerfeldt disagrees totally with these opinions and his firm believe is something has to be done. This is to let companies in to the water market and take over with their special knowledge and technology. My conclusion is that something has to be done, but it is not to let the companies set the agenda. Instead the United Nations and its sub-organisations should change the terms for their loans and make sure they sponsor water investments instead of arms. The solution for this problem is not purely market or state distribution, rather a good combination of both.

二○○二年一月一日，我國以「台灣、澎湖、金門及馬祖個別關稅領域」之名義（簡稱中華台北Chinese Taipei），正式成為世界貿易組織（World Trade Organization，以下簡稱WTO）之一員，適逢服務貿易總協定（General Agreement on Trade in Services，以下簡稱GATS）第十九條之既定談判依多哈發展議程之規定進入「要求與回應」（offer and request）之階段，掌握GATS服務貿易談判現狀、熟稔前回合談判WTO會員提出之初始承諾，以便於未來談判中爭取我國之利益，便是我國加入WTO後履行會員義務、行使會員權益重要的工作。 我國保險服務市場，自一九八五年與美國簽署保險服務市場開放協定後，便逐步開放；二○○一年七月九日，我國通過之保險法修正內容，在提昇保險業經營效率、調整保險業資金運用之範圍與限制、商品審核制度等方面，亦展現了政府保險服務市場管制革新的動向。另一方面，隨著兩岸商業交易熱絡及兩岸雙雙加入WTO之下，我國保險業者出口保險服務的腳步也轉為積極。 保險服務貿易，在WTO規範架構中，隸屬於GATS之金融服務部門下之保險、銀行、證券三項服務之一。自烏拉圭回合以來，會員保險服務貿易議題，經歷一九九三年至一九九七年多次的金融服務貿易談判，並利用金融服務第二附件、第二議定書、第五議定書，讓會員有修改或撤回承諾表之機會，最後在一九九七年達成會員全體合意之初始承諾承諾水準。現在進行之保險服務談判（二千年即展開了），即是以上述承諾表及後加入WTO之新會員承諾表為基礎。在上述之背景下，為了準備刻正進行之談判，爭取我國最大的利益，實有深入研究WTO架構下之保險服務貿易自由化談判之必要。 本文第一章「緒論」，概述研究目的與方法、研究範圍、研究之限制。第二章「GATS與保險服務貿易」，首先簡述GATS適用之範圍與定義、GATS一般性義務、特定承諾規範，及GATS金融服務規範。其次，介紹GATS之保險服務分類、國際上保險服務供給者的型態，及各項保險服務中較具國際性之險種，作為保險服務貿易之背景說明。最後，本文藉由對現行GATS保險服務分類之分析，說明目前談判上遇到的困難，及WTO各會員保險法制差異性所造成之貿易限制問題。 第三章「保險服務貿易施與WTO會員自由化承諾」，首先說明現行WTO各會員保險服務高度政府干預的原因、主張減少政府干預的理由，及目前GATS允許的政府干預型態。其次，對於保險服務貿易各種限制措施加以說明，除了反映WTO會員初始承諾表所表列之市場開放與國民待遇限制外，其他初始承諾表無法看到的貿易限制措施，亦藉由學者的觀察亦反應在本文。本章節，除指出現存保險服務貿易限制措施，WTO各會員對同一保險服務不同的立法考量、開放政策或限制政策選擇，本文亦選擇部分會員的例子，作為採取限制措施政策之對照。 第四章「保險服務貿易自由化談判」，本文先簡述了GATS金融服務貿易談判各階段的成就及談判背景。其次，以第五議定書程序WTO會員保險服務所提高之自由化承諾之內容，及會員國整體初始承諾之情形，說明會員初始承諾之自由化程度、填寫承諾表上會員集團性之差異、會員提高保險服務貿易自由化承諾的方式。最後，以日本、美國、歐洲在GATS額外承諾上之承諾國內法規改革的例子，說明下一階段WTO保險服務自由化在「國內法規改革」方面之趨勢。 第五章，「結論與建議」，除對本文研究上之重要發現作一歸納說明，並提出幾點相關之建議。

服務貿易總協定（General Agreement on Trade in Services，GATS）秉持WTO之中心精神，以不歧視原則為重要基礎原則之一，分別規定於GATS第2條之最惠國待遇原則與第17條之國民待遇原則。 依據GATS第2條及第17條之規定，不歧視原則之要件包括：1)會員所採影響服務貿易之措施之要件；2)會員在特定承諾表做出開放承諾之要件（僅國民待遇原則）；3)來自其他會員之類似服務及服務供給者之要件；以及4)歧視性待遇之要件。 相較於GATT貨品貿易之不歧視原則而言，目前涉及GATS不歧視原則之要件與爭議問題等研究，仍處於發展階段，部分要件甚至仍未出現有力之實務見解，例如「服務及服務供給者之類似性」等，本文即希望透過拆解GATS不歧視原則之要件的方式，提出各要件可能發生之爭議問題，歸納分析目前WTO爭端解決實務見解及相關學術意見，一方面釐清GATS不歧視原則之法律全貌，一方面則藉由這些爭議的提出，期能拋磚引玉，對於將來有更多深化且精闢之相關研究之提出，有所助益。 最後，本文並依分析結果，針對各項爭議問題，提出我國目前法規體制在這些爭議問題下可能產生之疑義及我國主管機關可能之採行策略及方向建議。 關鍵字：服務貿易、服務貿易總協定、不歧視原則、最惠國待遇原則、國民待遇原則。 / Non-discrimination is one of the fundamental principles under the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). It is embodied as the most-favored-nation treatment and the national treatment under the Articles 2 and 17 of the GATS. According to the Articles 2 and 17 of the GATS, the elements of non-discrimination include: 1) must be measures by Members affecting trade in services, 2) Members have made commitments in its Schedule (national treatment applies only), 3) likeness of services and service suppliers of Members, and 4) must be no less favourable treatment. Compared with non-discrimination under the GATT, which has been developed more completely, the elements and their related issues of non-discrimination under the GATS are still lacking representative or binding opinions. For example, the issue of “likeness of services and service suppliers” has not been addressed officially on findings of panel or appellate body reports. This article tries to analyze all elements under non-discrimination of the GATS, raise possible issues, and conclude related findings of WTO dispute settlement and opinions of academic publications. By doing this, the legal structure of GATS non-discrimination and possible issues would be clarified more completely. More importantly, we are hoping this beginning would help forward more and more future profounder researches focusing on issues of GATS non-discrimination. Finally, based on the research results, this Article brings up some potential problems which may happen under the legal system of our country and proposes possible strategies and measures to be taken. Key Words: Trade in services, GATS, non-discrimination, most-favored-nation treatment, national treatment.

西元一九九五年一月一日，世界貿易組織(World Trade Orga- nization，以下簡稱WTO)正式於瑞士日內瓦成立運作；而WTO監管下之服務貿易總協定(General Agreement on Trade in Service，以下簡稱GATS )，即成為WTO架構下關於服務業最重要之多邊貿易協定 。 有鑑於WTO具有提供談判議場以及解決會員間貿易糾紛之機制等功能 ，且我國不但可藉由加入WTO而重返國際經貿社會，更可經由加入WTO而確保我國出口產品不遭受歧視性待遇、經由參與談判而掌握國內決策所需之資訊 ，甚至進一步於WTO體制中表達我國之看法，聯合其他利益相同之國家參與國際經貿之決策與立法，以積極保障我國政府及廠商之權益 。是故，加入WTO已成為我國既定之目標與政策；也因此，我國加入WTO後，國內服務業勢將受到GATS之影響，故有必要暸解GATS之相關規範。 我國為加入WTO，法律服務亦面臨市場開放之壓力，並已作出部份開放之承諾，而在開放過程中，如何維護律師之社會功能，並建立有效之機制，以確保法律服務之品質得以維持，而不致使消費者受損，即為本文之研究重點。 本文期能經由GATS以及我國法律服務相關規範之分析，達到以下目的： 1.釐清法律服務之概念、功能及範圍，並探討法律服務之障礙，以掌握 法律服務自由化之方向。 2.經由GATS與法律服務相關規範，以及專業服務後續談判之介紹，以了解 未來國際間法律服務貿易自由化，以及律師資格相互承認等未竟議題之 發展方向。 3.透過對於各WTO會員國所提出法律服務特定承諾表之分析，以暸解我國 法律服務開放之程度與必要性。並就我國提出之現行法律服務特定承諾 表，以及律師法等國內法律服務相關規範加以分析以期國內規範能與我 國所作出之承諾相配合。 4.藉由開放後我國法律服務可能產生相關問題之探討，建立對於外國法律 服務供給者規範之適當機制，以避免因法律服務之開放而影響律師社會 功能之實現。 因此，本文擬先闡述法律服務之定義、特性、GATS規範之法律服務範疇，以及法律服務常見之貿易障礙，以建立法律服務之整體概念；次就GATS法律服務之相關規範以及專業服務之後續談判結果加以介紹；其中因會計服務部門之國際化程度較高，較易於短期內建立外國專業服務供給者相互承認制度，因此專業服務談判小組首先致力於會計服務部門相互承認規範之建立，此亦可作為法律服務未來發展之借鏡，故本文擬就此加以介紹。又我國在尋求加入WTO之談判過程中，面臨各國對於法律服務市場開放之要求，並已提出初步之特定承諾表；為明瞭我國開放之程度及必要性，本文擬就已作出法律服務開放承諾之WTO會員之承諾表加以分析，以與我國承諾表加以比較。另為配合法律服務市場之開放，我國律師法已修正加入外國法事務律師之相關規定，本文並就此修正後之條文加以分析，以檢視其是否仍有須改進之處。最後，因我國律師之自治及懲戒制度仍未盡完備，律師民事責任之議題亦仍有極大之討論空間，而在法律服務市場開放後，勢將激化上述議題，而有加以探討之必要，故本文亦就前述問題略加討論。 目 次 第一章 緒論 1 1.1 研究動機與目的 1 1.2 研究範圍與方法 3 1.3 論文結構 5 第二章 法律服務總論 7 2.1 法律服務界說 7 2.1.1 法律服務之定義 7 2.1.2 法律服務之特性 11 2.1.3 GATS之法律服務範疇 16 2.2 法律服務之國際貿易類型 19 2.2.1 由境外提供服務 20 2.2.2 海外消費 21 2.2.3 設立商業據點 21 2.2.4 自然人呈現 22 2.3 法律服務之貿易障礙 23 2.3.1 專業資格之限制 24 2.3.2 業務範圍之限制 25 2.3.3 人員移動之限制 26 2.3.4 居住要求之限制 27 2.3.5 事務所名稱使用之限制 28 2.3.6 合夥、聯合執業及聘雇地主國專業人員之限制 29 第三章 GATS中法律服務之相關規範與制度 31 3.1 GATS本文 31 3.1.1 最惠國待遇 32 3.1.2 公開化 33 3.1.3 經濟整合 33 3.1.4 市場開放及國民待遇 34 3.1.5 國內規章 36 3.1.6 認許 37 3.2 有關專業服務之部長決議 39 3.2.1 專業服務工作小組之建立 39 3.2.2 優先致力於會計部門多邊原則之建立 40 3.3 特定承諾表 42 3.3.1 特定承諾表之內容 42 3.3.2 特定承諾表範例 44 第四章 法律服務國際貿易之未來發展方向 47 4.1 法律服務之發展趨勢 47 4.1.1 法律服務之國際化 48 4.1.2 法律事務所之國際化 49 4.2 法律服務國際貿易之未來發展方向 51 4.2.1 市場開放之多邊規範 52 4.2.2 使用國際準則 58 4.2.3 建立相互承認協定 59 第五章 我國法律服務之開放情況與相關問題探討 63 5. 1 我國未來法律服務之開放情況 63 5.1.1 WTO會員對我國法律服務開放之要求 63 5.1.2 我國法律服務承諾表草案介紹 70 5.2 我國法律服務承諾表草案相關問題探討 72 5.2.1 外國法事務律師與本國律師聯合執業問題 72 5.2.2 律師執業商業據點之型態問題 78 5.2.3 其他相關問題 85 5.3 WTO會員法律服務特定承諾表分析比較 87 5.3.1 得提供法律服務範圍之比較分析 89 5.3.2 服務提供方式之比較分析 91 第六章 我國律師法修正內容分析暨相關問題探討 103 6.1 我國律師法修正內容分析 104 6.2 律師自治與律師懲戒 110 6.2.1 律師自治之探討 110 6.2.2 律師倫理規範之建立 112 6.2.3 律師懲戒之現況 115 6.3 律師民事責任相關問題 118 6.3.1 律師之民事責任 118 6.3.2 律師責任保險制度之建立 122 第七章 結論與建議 127 7.1 結論 127 7.2 建議 130 參考文獻 133 附錄一 服務貿易總協定 145 附錄二 會計部門國內規範原則 167 附錄三 會計部門相互承認協定指導原則 173 表 次 表3-1 澳洲法律服務特定承諾表 45 表5-1 我國法律服務特定承諾表 70 表5-2 WTO會員法律服務承諾表分析 ─得提供法律服務範圍之比較 90 表5-3 WTO會員法律服務承諾表分析─服務提供方式之比較 (市場開放-由境外提供服務) 92 表5-4 WTO會員法律服務承諾表分析─服務提供方式之比較 (市場開放-境外消費) 93 表5-5 WTO會員法律服務承諾表分析─服務提供方式之比較 (市場開放-設立商業據點) 93 表5-6 WTO會員法律服務承諾表分析─服務提供方式之比較 (市場開放-自然人呈現) 96 表5-7 WTO會員法律服務承諾表分析─服務提供方式之比較 (國民待遇-由境外提供服務) 97 表5-8 WTO會員法律服務承諾表分析─服務提供方式之比較 (國民待遇-境外消費) 98 表5-9 WTO會員法律服務承諾表分析─服務提供方式之比較 (國民待遇-設立商業據點) 99 表5-10 WTO會員法律服務承諾表分析─服務提供方式之比較 (國民待遇-自然人呈現) 100 凡 例 AFLA ：外國法事務律師(Attorney of foreign legal affairs) CPC ：聯合國暫行產物分類表(Provisional Central Product Classification) IASC ：國際會計標準委員會(International Accounting Standards Committee) IBA ：國際律師協會(International Bar Association) IFAC ：國際會計師協會(International Federation of Accountants) IOSCO：國際證券組織委員會(International Organization of Securities Commissions) GATS ：服務貿易總協定(General Agreement on Trade in Services) MRA ：相互承認協定(Mutual Recognition Agreement) OECD ：經濟合作發展組織(Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development) TBT ：技術性貿易障礙協定(Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade) TRIPs：與貿易有關之智慧財產權協定(Agreement on Trade- Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) WPPS ：專業服務工作小組(Working Party on Professional Services) WTO ：世界貿易組織(World Trade Organization) 規範原則：會計部門國內規範原則(Disciplines on Domestic Regulation in the Accountancy Sector) 指導原則：會計部門相互承認協定指導原則(Guidelines for Mutual Recognition Agreements or Arrangements in the Accountancy Sector)

西元2010年Google不滿中國對於網際網路之審查規範，因而宣布退出中國網際網路搜尋引擎市場之營運，Google認為中國網際網路之審查規範已影響自由貿易，並於同年（2010年）發表白皮書，強調政府管制網路資訊的行為會影響貿易，於附件中討論WTO服務貿易總協定應如何適用於政府限制網路資訊之措施。Google冀望美國能將此爭議訴諸於世界貿易組織之爭端解決機構；而美國貿易代表署也受Google之呼籲，著手研究將中國網路審查措施，向世界貿易組織提出爭端案件之可能。 為了解本爭端若訴諸WTO爭端解決，美國勝訴之可能性，以及預測中國是否可能因Google案件而被迫調整其網路管制以符合WTO規範，本文討論重心將從WTO服務貿易總協定規範之角度探討Google所指摘之中國對於網際網路搜尋引擎服務之管制。

本文以GATS觀光建制演進為例，驗證以新自由制度主義為基礎所建立的基本假設。本文對GATS觀光建制演進所作之考察，驗證了經濟過程面、整體權力結構、議題權力結構、國際組織面等總體政治經濟結構面因素，在不同階段，單獨或合併對GATS觀光建制立法演進產生不同面向之影響。(見圖7-1) 經濟與科技發展及變化，是GATS及觀光建制議題形成的主要動能。GATS建制之形成，最初之原動力來自於美國因經濟及科技發展，而產生將服務貿易納入多邊貿易體系之利益認知，進而透過議程設定以推動建制之形成。WTO設立後，面對全球觀光需求成長之趨勢，不同發展階段的國家，都看到許多觀光商機，皆對觀光服務貿易寄以厚望，因此產生了持續進行觀光自由化談判之動能。 經濟與科技發展及變化，除了促成繼續推動模式二自由化承諾外，亦驅策已開發國家如美國所主張之模式三自由化，及開發中國家如印度所主張之模式四自由化。網路科技之進步，提高某些服務以模式一跨境提供的可行性，而產生模式一自由化之動機。但經濟與科技發展及變化，固然帶來了商機，也導致某些開發中國家所賴以維生之觀光產業，遭受跨國公司挾新科技之重大威脅。觀光附件立法之原始驅力，即來自於開發中國家面對經濟及科技變化所帶來之挑戰，期望透過立法途徑以有效減少利益漏失。 經濟及科技變化因素產生了談判動機，但仍有賴足夠的權力才能推動談判，而將所欲談判之議題推上議程，並影響談判結果。GATS建制之形成，最初得力於美國運用其於冷戰時期的強大整體權力為後盾，排除議價障礙，而將服務貿易議題推上烏拉圭回合談判議程。但隨著冷戰結束，整體權力結構未必能支配個別議題權力結構，美國較難運用其整體權力以遂行其在經貿議題領域的主張。因此，在服務貿易議題領域，烏拉圭回合後期一再出現多數意見凌駕美國利益期待的重要決定，例如美國所主張之國民待遇與市場開放二大原則列入一般義務，以及以負面表列方式作承諾，均遭到多數意見反對而大幅修改。 就權力結構面向觀察，當前WTO下的整體權力結構，係美國為首，EC協同領導，G-20具有關鍵反對地位的態勢。觀光議題權力結構，大致與WTO下的整體權力結構接近，亦是美歐主導，G-20具關鍵地位之態勢。整體權力結構因素，對於WTO建制整體推進與遲滯，例如杜哈議程的整體進展，影響較為直接。觀光特定承諾談判作為杜哈議程下服務貿易談判的一環，亦受整體進展之間接影響。美國所主張之旅館服務模式三自由化，以及「觀光談判九國立場文件」所主張之模式一及模式四自由化，皆因取得足夠的權力基礎，而較有機會進入談判議程。對觀光附件提案國言，觀光附件提案在杜哈議程展開後的政治經濟氣候下，迅速失去動能，與提案國勢單力薄，欠缺權力基礎不無關係。透過議題串連及或結盟可提高權力；觀光附件原始提案國多明尼加等，透過「觀光談判九國立場文件」提案，而與G-20主要成員議題結盟，不無強化提案之權力基礎，以提高競爭防護議題進入談判議程機會之意。 議題權力結構對於觀光談判有其影響。雖然由於整體權力結構與觀光議題權力結構的落差不大，其權力基礎究係整體權力或議題權力，不易分辨。不過，印度在杜哈議程下大幅放寬對觀光旅遊服務模式三自由化之承諾，議題權力結構可以局部解釋此一立場大轉變之原因。觀光附件提案國整體權力甚弱，但因對觀光議題之重視，傾力推動，而使其在此議題之權力得以提升，而發揮影響議程之作用。 在國際組織面因素方面，正式或非正式國際網絡、規範、制度，對權力行使所產生之約束力或助力，有時會造成與權力結構不盡一致的議價結果。昔日GATS形成之初，係在原GATT建制下進行談判，開發中國家得以利用GATT既有架構表達反對立場，而導致GATT秘書處無法於1980年代初期建立服務貿易討論的正式議程。其後，烏拉圭回合談判中，在強調「貿易體系整體需求」而不考慮個別國家利益下，限制了美國之權力運用，使其無法迫使他國接受其所擬訂的「服務貿易總協定」草案版本。國際組織面因素，對弱國的權力的行使常有頗大助力。尤其是GATS發展規範及其所衍生之規則，使權力相對弱勢之開發中國家取得更佳議價地位。開發中國家關於觀光議題之提案，無論是特定承諾談判或觀光附件相關議題之主張，發展規範及相關規則皆是重要後盾。反觀已開發國家受發展規範之拘束，卻又不能加以挑戰，只能於規則層次爭取有利之解釋。除發展規範外，WTO單一承諾談判制度及投票規則，乃至其他國際組織如世界觀光組織、UNCTAD，乃至NGOs的網絡關係或行為規範，亦對觀光建制演進有所影響。 本文之考察，亦驗證了另一項結構面之基本假設：改變GATS建制內容的新主張能否推進，前提是會員對於在「促進經濟福祉」及「維護政策自主」二方面相互利益之強弱有無之認知。GATS建制之自由化、發展、國內管制等三大主要規範，均可辨認出此二類可期待之相互利益，作為合作之基礎。惟強弱有別；例如，發展規範對已開發國家眼前之直接利益顯然不大，故政治基礎較不穩定，從而出現透過政治運作而降低牽制之嘗試。基本上，國家恒常運用其權力以追求利益，倘若某一涉及建制演進之主張，並無足夠的相互利益可資期待，則難誘發其運用權力以推進該主張之動能。推動建制改變的提案主張，必須具有與權力結構大致相稱的相互利益，但發展規範的推進無此條件。因此，相較於自由化規範，發展規範之推進，更有賴權力較大之會員，著眼於長期整體利益，包括價值理念之維護，作出較多讓步。 觀光特定承諾談判係以GATS自由化規範之相互利益為基礎，若能維持各提供模式自由化之均衡，兼顧發展規範，則其相互利益堪稱顯著，有助建制新內容之推進。例如，印度對觀光服務市場開放進一步放寬，除權力結構面因素外，顯著的「促進經濟福祉」預期相互利益之存在，亦有其解釋力。較大的挑戰是觀光附件提案；此一提案因係以發展規範為基礎，故其提案內容相互利益本即較不顯著，但不僅已開發國家無利益，連許多開發中國家所關心的政策自主利益亦遭威脅。此一提案雖一度獲得熱烈討論，卻於2002年杜哈議程展開後歸於沉寂，預期之相互利益不足乃是導致其失去動能的根本原因。在杜哈議程的政治現實下，原提案國改以「示範要求文件」，在特定承諾談判中，以實現觀光附件之目標，有其相互利益之考量。 展望未來，觀光服務貿易對不同發展階段之國家，皆具有潛在利益。對於服務貿易普遍缺少競爭力的開發中國家來說，觀光服務貿易更提供了創造外匯及就業機會而消除貧窮的契機所在。隨著全球化之推進，國際觀光服務貿易的商機愈來愈多，但跨國公司運用新科技，並進行各種形態之企業整合，導致競爭更趨白熱化，因而開發中國家所擔心的經濟利益漏失亦可能加劇。不同發展階段的WTO會員，基於各自的利益認知，皆有意運用權力以影響觀光建制之演進，使其朝著有利於已的方向發展。因此，GATS觀光服務貿易建制下，無論是特定承諾談判，或如觀光附件之類的規則談判，經濟面向的動能未來將持續存在。 但談判能否推進，重要前提是提案內容是否在「促進經濟福祉」及「維護政策自主」二方面具有相互利益。觀光附件提案在杜哈發展議程中遭到冰存，主因之一是相互利益不足。隨著全球化持續推進，國際觀光所出現的經濟漏失可能更趨嚴重，倘若觀光附件內容加以修改，而能解決開發中國家既要防止經濟利益漏失，又要避免主權旁落之兩難困境，兼具經濟福祉及政策自主之相互利益，則不無可能重新取得大部分開發中國家之支持。假如進一步在內容設計上，兼顧已開發國家之立場，則立法阻力將可減少。必須注意的是，期待相互利益是某一主張被接受的基礎，然而若日後之實際相互利益，與期待利益落差過大，則可能侵蝕原先的合作基礎，而對建制造成危機。例如，國內管制規範的實踐經驗，即出現與預期相互利益不符之情形，造成規範弱化之挑戰。 未來GATS建制演進之實際進展，主要仍受權力結構之支配。就整體權力結構觀察，美國在「一超多強」結構下，仍是軍事獨強，也是WTO下整體權力最強的會員。但EC在其會員擴增為25國且進一步整合後，或許更具與美國分庭抗禮的實力；「金磚四國」整體力量上升，除了已經在WTO內的中國、印度、巴西外，尚有俄羅斯即將加入，未來可能在農業G-20基礎上，展現其在WTO下更強的的結盟實力，但由於四國的基本利益並不一致，故其未來影響尚待觀察。就目前WTO會員之權力結構而言，美國與歐盟對建制的支持，是維繫及演進的關鍵所在。整體而言，多邊自由貿易建制合乎美國及歐盟的政治經濟利益，理當可獲其支持。 再就價值理念言，會員間除了權力與利益的理性計算外，也受到價值觀之制約，而多邊自由貿易建制，本質上係以西方式自由民主理念為價值基礎，對美國及歐盟具制約力。因此，在可見的未來，不易出現類似1970年代國際貨幣建制瓦解之情形。 在觀光議題權力結構方面，從統計數字顯示的趨勢觀之，美國、EC將繼續居於主導地位。但開發中國家的權力持續上升，中國與印度皆因觀光消費能力增加而產生議題權力；中國之成長尤其值得注意。另一方面，國際觀光對「金磚四國」外匯收益及就業機會之提供日趨重要，增加其對觀光客來源國之經濟依賴。 整體權力結構與觀光議題權力結構合併觀之，美國在可見的未來仍將是談判動能的主要來源，但美國必須獲得到EC的支持，並取得G-20之諒解，始能順利推動議程，在觀光服務模式三自由化之推動，此一權力基礎將繼續存在。從G-20在坎昆會議中面對美歐聯手所展現的對抗力量觀之，縱使推動議程的力量尚嫌不足，至少有力量阻滯議程，而迫使美國及EC重視其意見。G-20未來權力可能繼續上升，但對已開發國家的依賴將加深，且因各自與不同已開發國家間的權力關係不等距，而可能造成權力結構複雜化。 「觀光談判九國立場文件」所表達的模式四自由化，及限制觀光反競爭行為等立場，若開發中國家立場一致，則有機會獲得回應，但因權力結構日趨複雜，一切仍有變數。 就國際組織面言，發展規範及其相關規則，可望繼續牽制已開發國家，而提供開發中國家，尤其低度開發國家助力，使其向已開發國家所提出之主張更具正當性。未來，只要美國無意改變其積極參與並領導WTO建制的基本政策，當不致一味推動自由化規範，而偏廢發展規範。觀察WTO近年來的演進脈絡，美國面對國際組織面向之牽制，傾向於切割開發中國家陣營，限縮發展規範的適用對象於低度開發國家，而將發展規範對其之牽制減至最低。其次，開發中國家所一再主張的GATS第4條落實或施行問題，攸關發展規範下的權利義務內容，影響議價態勢及結果，乃是開發中國家與已開發國家未來無法迴避的問題。此外，WTO決策規則及實踐，包括正式程序及非正式機制如「綠室會議」之運作，未來是否改變，對議價結果也會有影響。在司法層面，WTO爭端解決之決定，例如美墨電信案對參考文件及發展規範之見解，以及網路賭博案對國內管制例外之解釋，也可能對觀光建制演進產生影響。