Text in Afrikaans / Die portefeulje Verdediging het vanaf 1948 tot 1959 besondere eise aan F.C. Erasmus gestel. Hy moes 'n parate en doeltreffende Unieverdedigingsmag, wat Suid-Afrika teen moontlike kommunistiese aggressie kon verdedig, daarstel. Hy moes ook die Nasionale Party se verdedigingsbeleid, tot nag toe abstrakte beginsels vervat in die partyprogram, implementeer. Erasmus het die Mag d.m.v. 'n ingrypende hervormingsprogram met 'n Suid-Afrikaanse identiteit beklee en Afrikaanssprekendes in groat getalle daarheen gelok. Nieteenstaande die beperkte hulpbronne tot die land se beskikking en sterk kritiek teen hom, het Erasmus Suid-Afrika se verdediging met rasse skrede laat vooruitgaan. Hy het die organisasie, opleiding en krygstuig van die Mag uitgebou en gemoderniseer, en ook die grondslag van 'n onafhanklike, plaaslike krygstuigvervaardigingsbedryf gele. Voorts het Erasmus 'n prominente rol in Suid-Afrika se internasionale militere strategie gespeel. Hy bet onvermoeid gepoog om die Europese koloniale moondhede te oorreed om 'n Afrika-verdedigingsorganisasie op die been te bring. 'n Hoogtepunt van sy dienstermyn aan die internasionale front was Brittanje se oordrag van Simonstad aan Suid-Afrika. / The Defence portfolio placed heavy demands on F.C. Erasmus from 1948 to 1959. He had to transform the South African armed forces into an efficient and combat ready Union Defence Force. He also had to implement the National Party's defence policy, which hitherto consisted of abstract principles contained in the party's political programme. Erasmus made far reaching changes to the Union Defence Force, furnishing it with a distinct South African identity. Despite criticism against him and the country's limited resources Erasmus improved South Africa's defence significantly. He modernized the organization, training and equipment of the Union Defence Force and established the basis for an independent local armaments industry. Erasmus also played a prominent role in South Africa's international military strategy. He laboured unceasingly to persuade the European colonial powers to enter into an African defence alli~nce. One of his greatest achievements is the transfer of Simonstown to South Africa. / History / M.A. (Geskiedenis)

Text in Afrikaans / Die portefeulje Verdediging het vanaf 1948 tot 1959 besondere eise aan F.C. Erasmus gestel. Hy moes 'n parate en doeltreffende Unieverdedigingsmag, wat Suid-Afrika teen moontlike kommunistiese aggressie kon verdedig, daarstel. Hy moes ook die Nasionale Party se verdedigingsbeleid, tot nag toe abstrakte beginsels vervat in die partyprogram, implementeer. Erasmus het die Mag d.m.v. 'n ingrypende hervormingsprogram met 'n Suid-Afrikaanse identiteit beklee en Afrikaanssprekendes in groat getalle daarheen gelok. Nieteenstaande die beperkte hulpbronne tot die land se beskikking en sterk kritiek teen hom, het Erasmus Suid-Afrika se verdediging met rasse skrede laat vooruitgaan. Hy het die organisasie, opleiding en krygstuig van die Mag uitgebou en gemoderniseer, en ook die grondslag van 'n onafhanklike, plaaslike krygstuigvervaardigingsbedryf gele. Voorts het Erasmus 'n prominente rol in Suid-Afrika se internasionale militere strategie gespeel. Hy bet onvermoeid gepoog om die Europese koloniale moondhede te oorreed om 'n Afrika-verdedigingsorganisasie op die been te bring. 'n Hoogtepunt van sy dienstermyn aan die internasionale front was Brittanje se oordrag van Simonstad aan Suid-Afrika. / The Defence portfolio placed heavy demands on F.C. Erasmus from 1948 to 1959. He had to transform the South African armed forces into an efficient and combat ready Union Defence Force. He also had to implement the National Party's defence policy, which hitherto consisted of abstract principles contained in the party's political programme. Erasmus made far reaching changes to the Union Defence Force, furnishing it with a distinct South African identity. Despite criticism against him and the country's limited resources Erasmus improved South Africa's defence significantly. He modernized the organization, training and equipment of the Union Defence Force and established the basis for an independent local armaments industry. Erasmus also played a prominent role in South Africa's international military strategy. He laboured unceasingly to persuade the European colonial powers to enter into an African defence alli~nce. One of his greatest achievements is the transfer of Simonstown to South Africa. / History / M.A. (Geskiedenis)

Monosialoganglioside (GM1) is a component of most cell membranes and is thought to play a role in development, recognition and cellular differentiation. Furthermore, GM1 is a neuroprotective agent that has been reported to scavenge free radicals generated during reperfusion and to protect receptors and enzymes from oxidative damage. In the present study we investigate the effect of GM1 on the catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activities, on the spontaneous chemiluminescence and total radical-trapping potential (TRAP) in cortex of rats ex vivo and in vitro. Systemic GM1 administration (50 mg/kg, i.p.; twice) reduced spontaneous chemiluminescence and increased CAT activity ex vivo. On the other hand, GM1 (103-104 nM) reduced CAT activity in vitro. The other parameters were not affected by GM1 administration. These findings agree with the view that the antioxidant action of GM1 is not due to an intrinsic antioxidant activity of this glycolipid, but due to a secondary decrease of reactive species generation and/or increase of antioxidant defenses. Moreover, we evaluated whether GM1 could have a neuroprotective action on the experimental model of glutaric acidemia, an inherited metabolic disorder characterized by glutaric acid (GA) accumulation and neurological dysfunction, as striatal degeneration and convulsion. The systemic GM1 administration (50 mg/kg, i.p. twice) protected against the convulsions, oxidative damage markers increase (total protein carbonylation and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances - TBARS) production and Na+,K+-ATPase activity inhibition induced by GA (4 mol/ 2 l) in striatum of rats. Furthermore, convulsive episodes induced by GA strongly correlated with Na+,K+-ATPase activity inhibition in the injected striatum, but not with oxidative stress marker measures. In addition, GM1 (50-200 M) protected against Na+,K+-ATPase inhibition induced by GA (6 mM), but not against oxidative damage in vitro. Intrastriatal administration of muscimol (46 pmol/striatum), a GABAA receptor agonist, but not glutamatergic receptor antagonists MK-801 (3 nmol/striatum) and DNQX (8 nmol/striatum), prevented GA-induced convulsions and inhibition of Na+,K+-ATPase activity. The protection of GM1 and muscimol against GA-induced seizures strongly correlated with Na+,K+-ATPase activity maintenance in the injected striatum with GA. Since GM1 and muscimol prevented neurotoxic effects induced by GA, we investigated the GM1 action after intrastriatal administration of pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), a GABAA receptor antagonist. GM1 treatment prevented seizures, Na+,K+-ATPase inhibition, and increase of TBARS and protein carbonyl induced by PTZ (1.8 mol/striatum) in the rats striatum. Furthermore, these data suggest that Na+,K+-ATPase and GABAA receptor-mediated mechanisms may play important roles in GA-induced seizures and in their prevention by GM1. / O monossialogangliosídeo (GM1) é um componente natural de membrana plasmática que está envolvido no crescimento, reconhecimento e diferenciação celular, além de proteger o SNC da ação dos radicais livres. No presente estudo investigou-se o efeito do GM1 sobre a atividade das enzimas antioxidantes catalase (CAT), superóxido dismutase (SOD) e glutationa peroxidase (GPx), assim como na quimiluminescência e capacidade antioxidante total (TRAP) em córtex cerebral de ratos machos adultos ex vivo e in vitro. A administração sistêmica de GM1 (50 mg/kg, i.p.; duas doses: 24 horas e 30 minutos antes do sacrifício) reduziu a quimiluminescência e aumentou significativamente a atividade da CAT ex vivo. A adição de GM1 (103-104 nM) ao meio de incubação diminuiu a atividade da CAT in vitro. Estes resultados sugerem que o efeito neuroprotetor do GM1 não é devido à ação antioxidante intrínseca deste glicoesfingolipídeo, mas devido ao aumento secundário das defesas antioxidantes e/ou uma redução da geração de radicais livres. Além disso, avaliamos se o GM1 tinha efeito neuroprotetor em um modelo experimental da acidemia glutárica, um erro inato do metabolismo caracterizado pelo acúmulo tecidual de ácido glutárico (GA) e alterações neurológicas, como degeneração estriatal e convulsões. A administração de GM1 preveniu as convulsões, o aumento da produção dos marcadores do dano oxidativo (carbonilação protéica total e substâncias reativas do ácido tiobarbitúrico - TBARS) e a inibição da atividade da Na+,K+-ATPase induzidas pelo GA (4 mol/2 µl) em estriado de ratos. Além disso, os episódios convulsivos induzidos por GA apresentaram uma correlação significativa com a inibição da atividade da Na+,K+-ATPase no estriado injetado, mas não com os níveis dos marcadores do estresse oxidativo. A adição de GM1 (50 200  ao meio de incubação preveniu a inibição da Na+,K+-ATPase, mas não reduziu o dano oxidativo induzido por GA (6 mM) in vitro. A administração intraestriatal de muscimol (46 pmol/0,5 l), um agonista de receptor GABAA, mas não dos antagonistas de receptores glutamatérgicos, MK-801 (3 nmol/0,5 l) e DNQX (8 nmol/0,5 l), preveniu as convulsões e a inibição da atividade da Na+,K+-ATPase induzidas por GA. A proteção do GM1 e muscimol contra as convulsões induzidas por GA apresentou uma correlação significativa com a manutenção da atividade da Na+,K+-ATPase no estriado injetado com GA. Desde que o GM1 e o muscimol preveniram os efeitos neurotóxicos induzidos pelo GA, investigou-se a ação do GM1 após a administração intraestriatal de pentilenotetrazol (PTZ), um antagonista de receptores GABAA. O tratamento com GM1 preveniu as convulsões, o dano oxidativo e a inibição da atividade da Na+,K+-ATPase induzidas por PTZ (1,8 µmol/2 µl). Esses dados sugerem que a atividade da Na+,K+-ATPase e mecanismos mediados pela ativação de receptores GABAérgicos podem ser de grande importância para a atividade convulsiva induzida por GA, bem como nos mecanismos de neuroproteção induzidos pelo GM1.

This study aims to defend value formalism, like the formalism useful to the procedure as a means of achieving a fair process. For both historical analysis is made of the jurisdiction under the focus of the power conferred on the Judge from the Roman State to the present day. Takes the postwar constitutionalism as a starting point to treat the state as insurer of the fundamental rights of the citizen and as a provider of public policies. The process no longer seen as a mere tool in the service of the right stuff and will be recognized as a fundamental constitutional guarantee, as applied constitutional law. To do so, we start a process permeated by formalism-excessive in search of a value formalism emptying into the necessary balance or balance between the principles of effectiveness and legal certainty. Shows the need and possibility to change the paradigm of legal positivism to the model of principles and rules, as well as the possibility of dialogue in the countries of civil law institutes the common law. Search on the judicial activism the means to achieve the necessary flexibility procedural, either by technical management of litigation, the principle of elasticity, the use of axiological and ontological gaps as well as the principle of proportionality. All analysis aims to find solutions to reach decisions fairer and according with the democratic rule of law. / O presente estudo tem por objetivo defender o formalismo-valorativo, ou seja, o formalismo útil ao procedimento, como meio de se alcançar um processo justo. Para tanto é feita a análise histórica da jurisdição sob o enfoque do poder conferido ao Juiz desde o Estado Romano até os dias atuais. Toma-se o constitucionalismo do pósguerra como ponto de partida para tratar do Estado como assegurador dos direitos fundamentais do cidadão e como provedor das políticas públicas. O processo deixa de ser visto como mero instrumento a serviço do direito material e passa a ser reconhecido como uma garantia constitucional fundamental, como direito constitucional aplicado. Para tanto, parte-se de um processo permeado por um formalismo-excessivo em busca de um formalismo-valorativo a desaguar no necessário equilíbrio ou ponderação entre os princípios da efetividade e segurança jurídica. Mostra-se a necessidade e possibilidade de mudança do paradigma do positivismo jurídico para o modelo de princípios e regras, como também a possibilidade de diálogo nos países da civil law de institutos da common law. Buscase no ativismo judicial o meio de concretizar a necessária flexibilização procedimental, seja pela técnica de gerenciamento de processos judiciais, pela aplicação do princípio da elasticidade, do uso das lacunas axiológicas e ontológicas, bem como do princípio da proporcionalidade. Toda a análise visa buscar soluções para o alcance de decisões mais justas e consetâneas com o Estado Democrático de Direito.

This study aims to defend value formalism, like the formalism useful to the procedure as a means of achieving a fair process. For both historical analysis is made of the jurisdiction under the focus of the power conferred on the Judge from the Roman State to the present day. Takes the postwar constitutionalism as a starting point to treat the state as insurer of the fundamental rights of the citizen and as a provider of public policies. The process no longer seen as a mere tool in the service of the right stuff and will be recognized as a fundamental constitutional guarantee, as applied constitutional law. To do so, we start a process permeated by formalism-excessive in search of a value formalism emptying into the necessary balance or balance between the principles of effectiveness and legal certainty. Shows the need and possibility to change the paradigm of legal positivism to the model of principles and rules, as well as the possibility of dialogue in the countries of civil law institutes the common law. Search on the judicial activism the means to achieve the necessary flexibility procedural, either by technical management of litigation, the principle of elasticity, the use of axiological and ontological gaps as well as the principle of proportionality. All analysis aims to find solutions to reach decisions fairer and according with the democratic rule of law. / O presente estudo tem por objetivo defender o formalismo-valorativo, ou seja, o formalismo útil ao procedimento, como meio de se alcançar um processo justo. Para tanto é feita a análise histórica da jurisdição sob o enfoque do poder conferido ao Juiz desde o Estado Romano até os dias atuais. Toma-se o constitucionalismo do pósguerra como ponto de partida para tratar do Estado como assegurador dos direitos fundamentais do cidadão e como provedor das políticas públicas. O processo deixa de ser visto como mero instrumento a serviço do direito material e passa a ser reconhecido como uma garantia constitucional fundamental, como direito constitucional aplicado. Para tanto, parte-se de um processo permeado por um formalismo-excessivo em busca de um formalismo-valorativo a desaguar no necessário equilíbrio ou ponderação entre os princípios da efetividade e segurança jurídica. Mostra-se a necessidade e possibilidade de mudança do paradigma do positivismo jurídico para o modelo de princípios e regras, como também a possibilidade de diálogo nos países da civil law de institutos da common law. Buscase no ativismo judicial o meio de concretizar a necessária flexibilização procedimental, seja pela técnica de gerenciamento de processos judiciais, pela aplicação do princípio da elasticidade, do uso das lacunas axiológicas e ontológicas, bem como do princípio da proporcionalidade. Toda a análise visa buscar soluções para o alcance de decisões mais justas e consetâneas com o Estado Democrático de Direito.

“What is Europe's role in this changed world? Does Europe not, now that is finally unified, have a leading role to play in a new world order, that of a power able both to play a stabilising role worldwide and to point the way ahead for many countries and peoples?” These were two of the central questions put by the Laeken Declaration, adopted by the European Council in December 2001. The Declaration offered the beginning of an answer, pointing out the direction for future policy developments, and for the institutional reform underpinning them: “The role it has to play is that of a power resolutely doing battle against all violence, all terror and all fanaticism, but which also does not turn a blind eye to the world's heartrending injustices. In short, a power wanting to change the course of world affairs…A power seeking to set globalisation within a moral framework.” At the same time, the Laeken Declaration pointed out some more specific questions concerning the institutional innovations required to enhance the coherence of European foreign policy and to reinforce the synergy between the High Representative for CFSP and the relevant Commissioners within the RELEX family. With a view to a better distribution of competences between the EU and Member States, on the basis of the principle of subsidiarity, the text mentioned the development of a European foreign and defence policy first, and referred more particularly to the scope for updating the ‘Petersberg’ tasks of crisis management, a policy domain that would take a pivotal place in the consolidation of ESDP and CFSP at large. This Declaration marks the beginning of the process of regime reform that covers the last three years of common foreign and security policy (CFSP) of the European Union. This evolution, and the innovations that it has brought about in institutional and normative terms, are the subjects of this thesis.<p><p>The Convention on the future of Europe, set up by the Laeken Declaration, represented an important stage in the pan-European debate on the objectives, values, means and decision-making tools of CFSP. The US-led intervention in Iraq in March 2003 marked a new ‘critical juncture’ in the development of the conceptual and institutional bases of CFSP. As it was the case in the past, following major policy failures in the course of the Balkan wars, Member States sought to mend the rift that divided them in the run up to the Iraq war. In so doing, Member States agreed on a significant degree of institutional reform in the context of the Convention and of the subsequent Inter-Governmental Conference (IGC). The creation of the new position of a double-hatted Foreign Minister, as well as the envisaged rationalisation and consolidation of the instruments at his/her disposal, including a new European External Action Service (EAS), is a primary achievement in this perspective. On the defence side, a new formula of ‘permanent structured cooperation’ among willing and able Member States has been included in the Treaty Establishing the European Constitution (Constitutional Treaty), with a view to them undertaking more binding commitments in the field of defence, and fulfilling more demanding missions. Right at the time when the Iraq crisis was sending shockwaves across the political and institutional structures of the Union, and of CFSP in particular, the first ESDP civilian mission were launched, soon followed by small military operations. The unprecedented deployment of civilian and military personnel under EU flag in as many as 13 missions between 2002 and 2005 could be achieved thanks to the development of a new layer of policy-makign and crisis-management bodies in Brussels. The launch of successive ESDP operations turned out to be a powerful catalyst for the further expansion and consolidation of this bureaucratic framework and of the conceptual dimension of CFSP/ESDP. Most importantly, these and other dimensions of institutional and operational progress should be set in a new, overarching normative and political framework provided by the European Security Strategy (ESS). <p><p>Needless to say, institutional innovations are stalled following the rejection of the Constitutional Treaty in the French and Dutch referenda of May/June 2005. With a view to the evolution of the CFSP regime, however, I argue in this thesis that the institutional reforms envisaged in the Constitutional Treaty are largely consistent with the unfolding normative and bureaucratic features of the regime. As illustrated in the course of my research, the institutional, bureaucratic and normative dimensions of the regime appear to strengthen one another, thereby fostering regime deepening. From this standpoint, therefore, the stalemate of institutional reform does slow down the reform of the international regime of CFSP but does not seem to alter the direction of its evolution and entail its stagnation, or even dismantling. On the contrary, I maintain that the dynamics of regime change that I detect will lead to stronger, endogenous and exogenous demands for institutional reform, whose shapes and priorities are to a large extent already included in the Constitutional treaty. This vantage point paves the way to identifying the trends underlying the evolution of the regime, but does not lead to endorsing a teleological reading of regime reform. As made clear in what follows, CFSP largely remains a matter of international cooperation with a strong (although not exclusive) inter-governmental component. As such, this international regime could still suffer serious, and potentially irreversible, blows, were some EU Member States to openly depart from its normative coordinates and dismiss its institutional or bureaucratic instances. While this scenario cannot be ruled out, I argue in this thesis that this does not seem the way forward. The institutional and normative indicators that I detect and review point consistently towards a ‘deepening’ of the regime, and closer cooperation among Member States. In other words, it is not a matter of excluding the possibility of disruptions in the evolution of the CFSP regime, but to improve the understanding of regime dynamics so as to draw a distinction between long-term trends and conjunctural crises that, so far, have not undermined the incremental consolidation of CFSP/ESDP. <p><p>Central to this research is the analysis of the institutional and normative features of the CFSP regime at EU level. The focus lies on the (increasing) difference that institutions and norms make to inter-governmental policy-making under CFSP, in the inter-play with national actors. The purpose of my research is therefore threefold. First, I investigate the functioning and development of the bureaucratic structures underpinning the CFSP regime, since their establishment in 2000/2001 up to 2005. This theoretically informed review will allow me to highlight the distinctive procedural and normative features of CFSP policy-making and, subsequently, to assess their influence on the successive stages of reform. Second, I track and interpret the unprecedented processes by which innovations have been introduced (or envisaged) at the institutional and normative level of the regime, with a focus on the Convention on the future of Europe and on the drafting of the European Security Strategy. Third, I assess the institutional and normative output of this dense stage of reform, with respect both to the ‘internal’ coherence and the deepening of the regime, and to the ‘external’ projection of the EU as an international actor in the making. <p><p>On the whole, I assume that a significant, multidimensional transition of the CFSP regime is underway. The bureaucratic framework enabling inter-governmental cooperation encourages patterned behaviour, which progressively generates shared norms and standards of appropriateness, affecting the definition of national interests. In terms of decision-making, debate and deliberation increasingly complement negotiation within Brussels-based CFSP bodies. Looking at the direction of institutional and policy evolution, the logic of ‘sharing’ tasks, decisions and resources across different (European and national) levels of governance prevails, thereby strengthening the relevance of ‘path-dependency’ and of the ‘ratchet effect’ in enhancing inter-governmental cooperation as well as regime reform. <p><p><p> / Doctorat en Sciences politiques et sociales / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

La présente thèse a une vocation à la fois descriptive et prospective. Descriptive, d’une part, en ce qu’elle entend mettre au jour les fondements juridiques actuels de la responsabilité criminelle tout en déterminant l’étendue des rapports qu’ils entretiennent avec la notion philosophique de libre arbitre. Prospective, d’autre part, en ce qu’elle entend évaluer les chances de survie de ces fondements à la lumière de la nouvelle vision de l’homme qui se dégage des avancées récentes en neurosciences. Nous aurons pour ce faire à soupeser la vraisemblance de deux grandes prophéties concernant l’avenir de la responsabilité criminelle : l’une, que nous qualifierons de « scientiste », prétend que le concept juridique actuel de responsabilité criminelle est voué à tomber en désuétude en raison de son incompatibilité avec notre connaissance du cerveau. L’autre, que nous qualifierons de « légitimiste », prétend que c’est plutôt en modifiant les intuitions populaires en matière de responsabilité que les neurosciences bouleverseront l’édifice pénal. Dans les deux cas, nous découvrirons qu’une erreur de diagnostic quant au fonctionnement juridique et psychologique des jugements de responsabilité conduit à une erreur de pronostic. / This doctoral dissertation is both descriptive and prospective. Descriptive, on the one hand, by seeking to identify the current legal foundations of criminal responsibility and by trying to determinate the extent of their relationship with the philosophical notion of free will. Prospective, on the other hand, by seeking to evaluate the chances of survival of these foundations in the light of the new vision of man that emanates from advances in neuroscience. To this end, two great prophecies concerning the future of criminal responsibility will have to be weighed: one, which we will call ‘‘scientist’’, claims that the current legal concept of criminal responsibility is incompatible with what neuroscience teaches us and is, therefore, destined to fall into disuse. The other, which we will call ‘‘legitimist’’, claims that it is rather by altering the popular intuitions about responsibility that neuroscience will threat the penal edifice. In both cases, we will discover that a misdiagnosis concerning the legal and psychological functioning of the judgments of responsibility leads to an error of prognosis.

No description available.

Le but de cette étude est de présenter un tableau des questions de défense en Crète aux époques classique et hellénistique. La cité grecque étant une entité double, la défense de la ville n’a pas été séparée de celle de son territoire.<p>Le point de départ de ce travail est le catalogue des fortifications crétoises, qui comprend 61 sites fortifiés (enceintes urbaines, forts et tours isolées).<p>À partir d’une étude qui fait une grande place aux questions de topographie, il a été possible d’une part, de dégager des dynamiques régionales et d’autre part, d’identifier certaines caractéristiques et certaines évolutions dans l’implantation des cités crétoises.<p>L’exemple de la Crète permet d’alimenter le débat sur la place de l’enceinte dans la définition de la cité. Les vestiges archéologiques ne semblent pas aller dans le sens des sources littéraires, selon lesquelles toute cité était nécessairement ceinte d’un rempart. Mais l’existence d’une enceinte semble bien être la marque du statut de cité./This study aims to raise various questions regarding defence in Crete during the classical and Hellenistic Periods. As the Greek city-state was a double entity, it seemed important to not separate the defence of the town from the defence of the territory.<p>The starting point of this work was the catalogue of Cretan fortifications, which contains 61 fortified sites (city walls, forts and watch-towers).<p>Topography plays a key role in the study therefore it is possible, on the one hand to separate regional dynamics of some cities and, on the other, to identify certain characteristics and evolutions in the settlement of Cretan cities.<p>The example of Crete encourages the debate on the role of the city-wall in the definition of the city-state. Archaeological remains do not seem not to agree with literary sources which declare that every town had a wall. However the existence of a city-wall appears to be indicative of the city-state. / Doctorat en Histoire, art et archéologie / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Opérations particulièrement complexes, les offres publiques d'acquisition ne cessent de faire parler d'elles, plus particulièrement lorsqu'elles présentent un caractère hostile pour la société visée. De nombreux efforts législatifs ont été mis en œuvre en vue d'encadrer les OPA et de lutter contre les prises de contrôle rampantes. L'analyse du droit positif permet de mettre en lumière ces différents efforts ainsi que leur mise en œuvre à travers diverses techniques par les sociétés visées. Ces dernières ont par ailleurs développé un certain nombre de mécanismes de défense anti-OPA particulièrement efficaces, mais se révélant le plus souvent insuffisants face à l'ingéniosité dont peut faire preuve l'initiateur. Le droit positif montre ainsi ses limites face à des pratiques qui ne cessent d'évoluer. L'analyse prospective du droit anti-OPA permet d'observer les nouvelles mutations que subit le droit positif au regard des nouveaux enjeux économiques. Elle permet également d'envisager de nouveaux modes d'appréhension des OPA hostiles. Il est ainsi possible d'observer que le gouvernement d'entreprise prend une place considérable dans la vie des sociétés cotées. De même, la montée en puissance de la régulation et l'interventionnisme de l’État sont de plus en plus marqués ; et les salariés s'impliquent de plus en plus dans la gestion de l'entreprise. L'ensemble de ces paramètres marquent un glissement progressif vers une réorganisation du mode de fonctionnement des sociétés, ce qui a amené au développement du soft law, un droit à la frontière du droit positif et des pratiques des sociétés. Le soft law constitue à ce titre une approche inédite des OPA hostiles, dont l'analyse permet de cerner les apports liés à la mutation du droit positif et d'envisager l'émergence de nouveaux moyens de défense. Celui-ci doit toutefois demeurer complémentaire au cadre législatif et réglementaire existant. / No abstract