Inom översättning och vid inlärning av ett nytt språk kan man stöta på ord som är svåra att uttrycka påmålspråket. Ett sådant ord är ”förvirring” i förhållande till franskan. I denna uppsats undersöks konceptet”förvirring” samt de besläktade orden ”förvirrad”, ”förvirrat”, ”förvirra”, samt ”förvirrande”, och hurdessa uttrycks på franska. Detta görs genom att jämföra översättningar i en parallellkorpus med hjälp avordboksdefinitioner och genom att diskutera kontexterna där de hittats. Resultatet visar att det finnsmånga varierande sätt att uttrycka de olika svenska orden på franska, och det verkar krävas att man i storutsträckning beaktar kontexten, då de svenska orden ofta är mer polysema än de franska. Undantaget ärsubstantivet ”förvirring” som utan större problem kan översättas till ”confusion” i de flesta sammanhang.Konceptet ”förvirring” verkar dock ha en annan roll och andra kopplingar i det svenska språket än vad dethar i det franska språket.

Does the 4-factor model have a higher degree of explanation than CAPM and the 3-factor model on the Swedish stock market? The purpose of this thesis is to investigate whether the 4-factor model's ability to explain the systematic risk on the Swedish stock market is better than CAPM and the 3-factor model. Furthermore, we want to investigate whether it is possible to create portfolios based on the 4-factor model that generates excess returns. In addition, we will also compare our results with the results of previous international studies to see what results we get in the Swedish market.

Tidigare forskning har visat på att länder vars export till stor del utgörs av råvaror riskerar att ha en lägre ekonomisk utveckling. Detta på grund av ett ofördelaktigt prisförhållande där priset stiger snabbare för tillverkade varor än vad det gör för råvaror. Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka om det finns något samband mellan råvaruexport och ekonomisk utveckling. Därför genomförs att antal regressionsanalyser i paneldata som inkluderar exportdata från 45 länder, med stor geografisk och ekonomisk spridning, under tidsperioden 2001–2020 för att se hur korrelationen ser ut mellan andelen av exporten som utgörs av råvaror och variabler som anses representera ekonomisk utveckling, det vill säga BNP- och löneökning. Resultatet påvisar ett tydligt samband mellan råvaruexport och BNP-tillväxt, som blir ännu starkare när en regression genomförs med laggade variabler, vilket skulle kunna peka mot en kausalitet. Analysen visar dock att det inte verkar finnas något samband mellan råvaruexport och löneökning. / Earlier studies have shown that countries whose export is highly dependent on primary goods tend to show slower economic development. That is because of disadvantageous terms of trade where prices are rising faster for manufactured goods than primary goods. The purpose of this paper is therefore to examine if there is a relationship between primary export and economic development. Therefore, a number of regressions are performed with panel data that include export data from 45 countries, with a large geographic and economic distribution, during the time period 2001–2020 to see what the correlation looks like between the share of exports that is made up by primary goods and variables that represent economic development, namely GDP growth and wage increase. The result demonstrates a clear correlation between primary exports and GDP growth, which become even clearer when a regression is performed with lagged variables, which could indicate causality. However, the analysis does not seem to show a correlation between primary exports and wage increases.

According to the efficient market hypothesis the stock price for a company should be evoked immediately when new and unpredicted information about the company’s value is published. A publishing of a qualified audit opinion that disclose previously unknown negative aspects of a limited liability company, should thus result in a negative impact on its share price. Previous studies in the field, on the other hand, show conflicting results. In some cases, a negative impact has been found, in other cases a positive impact has been found while in some cases no impact could be observed. The study's selection framework consists of 223 Swedish listed limited companies which have received a qualified audit opinion during the fiscal years 2011-2018. A stratified random sample was made where 142 companies were examined. This study aims to examine what relationship can be found between an audit opinion and abnormal returns for the company's share. Abnormal returns indicate the difference between expected returns and observed returns. The study is performed according to an event study with event windows of three different extents, from 1 day up to 21 days. The abnormal return on the shares has been studied according to the Market model. The results of the study are in line with previous research and show conflicting results. Over event windows of 21 days and 3 days, the majority shows a positive abnormal return and in contrast, the majority shows a negative abnormal return in terms of the event day only. It can be stated that investors on the Stockholm Stock Exchange react negatively only to going concern opinions. The results may further indicate that the Swedish market is efficient where reactions to new information in auditor opinions are immediate, rather than over time. The results may also indicate that investors are not the primary stakeholders to which the auditing profession should be adapted to in Sweden.

Aim:The purpose of this study is to investigate whether an investor will have to s acrifice their expectations of return by investing in a responsible way. Theory: The thesis is based on the efficient market hypothesis through the modern portfolio theory to make it possible to test whether the investor will have to sacrifice return after taking into account of the risk. To measure the risk-adjusted return we used Sharpe ratio, the Modigliani-Modigliani (M2), Jensen's alpha, which later on is the basis for the study's results and conclusion. Method: The study is a quantitative survey with a deductive approach where the selected theories determined what data is collected. Based on these theories we construct a hypothesis that this study later intended to test. Data was collected from Bloomberg. Conclusion: The study shows that several ethical indexes have a higher return while at the same time showing a higher risk-adjusted return. This higher risk-adjusted return is not statistically significant except for a few of the measured markets. The study also shows that the ethical indexes generally have a lower 𝛽, which can be interpreted as a lower systematic risk. Meanwhile the tracking error / active risk is higher and the screened indexes therefore should not be compared with say, index funds. When taken into account the longer period active risk levels match actively managed funds. As in previous studies, this study did not show any significant difference in risk-adjusted returns but a higher risk.

<p><em>Background:</em> The international accounting standard regarding goodwill gives opportunities to several accounting procedure choices, as goodwill is a complex, intangible asset. The valuation of goodwill affects equity/asset ratio and income statement, which gives that the stakeholders’ impression of the group’s financial statement is affected by the valuation of this asset. It has been pointed out that difficult economic times bring impairment loss to the fore. During financial crisis, equity/asset ratio may be significant as the economy of the groups is expected to be strained.</p><p><em>Purpose:</em> The purpose of this essay is to explain the appearance of the possible relationship between a group’s impairment loss for goodwill and their equity/asset ratio, during financial straits. Watts and Zimmerman’s debt/equity hypothesis serve as the starting point for our study. This hypothesis expresses, ceteris paribus, that the larger debt/equity ratio, the more likely it is to select accounting procedures that shift reported earnings from future periods to the current period. According to the hypothesis there should be a positive relationship between a group’s equity/asset ratio and their percentage share of goodwill impairment loss. A high equity/asset ratio would motivate a higher impairment loss for goodwill, as a lower equity/asset ratio would induce a lower impairment loss.</p><p><em>Method:</em> We decided to investigate all groups with the parent company listed on Nasdaq OMX Stockholm within the sectors financials and industrials. In financials, banks were excluded. The data was collected from annual reports of 2008 and was analyzed with the statistical analyzing methods correlation and regression.</p><p><em>Result/conclusion:</em> For those industrial groups which have had impairment loss for goodwill, the result is in accordance with Watts and Zimmerman’s hypothesis. A strong positive linear relationship could be found for those groups, but not for the sector as a whole. The equity/asset ratio therefore seems to not affect the decision of whether to lose impairment or not, but when the decision is made, the ratio of equity/asset seems to affect the size of the impairment loss. Within the financial sector, no relationship could be found – neither for the groups which have had impairment loss nor the sector as a whole.</p>

Background: The international accounting standard regarding goodwill gives opportunities to several accounting procedure choices, as goodwill is a complex, intangible asset. The valuation of goodwill affects equity/asset ratio and income statement, which gives that the stakeholders’ impression of the group’s financial statement is affected by the valuation of this asset. It has been pointed out that difficult economic times bring impairment loss to the fore. During financial crisis, equity/asset ratio may be significant as the economy of the groups is expected to be strained. Purpose: The purpose of this essay is to explain the appearance of the possible relationship between a group’s impairment loss for goodwill and their equity/asset ratio, during financial straits. Watts and Zimmerman’s debt/equity hypothesis serve as the starting point for our study. This hypothesis expresses, ceteris paribus, that the larger debt/equity ratio, the more likely it is to select accounting procedures that shift reported earnings from future periods to the current period. According to the hypothesis there should be a positive relationship between a group’s equity/asset ratio and their percentage share of goodwill impairment loss. A high equity/asset ratio would motivate a higher impairment loss for goodwill, as a lower equity/asset ratio would induce a lower impairment loss. Method: We decided to investigate all groups with the parent company listed on Nasdaq OMX Stockholm within the sectors financials and industrials. In financials, banks were excluded. The data was collected from annual reports of 2008 and was analyzed with the statistical analyzing methods correlation and regression. Result/conclusion: For those industrial groups which have had impairment loss for goodwill, the result is in accordance with Watts and Zimmerman’s hypothesis. A strong positive linear relationship could be found for those groups, but not for the sector as a whole. The equity/asset ratio therefore seems to not affect the decision of whether to lose impairment or not, but when the decision is made, the ratio of equity/asset seems to affect the size of the impairment loss. Within the financial sector, no relationship could be found – neither for the groups which have had impairment loss nor the sector as a whole.

This thesis aims to investigate to what extent the quantitative easing monetary policy tool, applied by the Riksbank, contributed to abnormal returns at the Swedish stock market during Covid-19. The chosen time period is 2007-2022, including the period before and after the implementation of quantitative easing in Sweden in 2015. Furthermore, the chosen time period includes two crises, the global financial crisis (GFC) and the Covid-19 crisis. Two artificial portfolios are created, one representing a high-risk portfolio and the other representing a low-risk portfolio. The thesis applies the ADL error correction model to estimate a potential relationship amongst QE and the returns for each of the computed portfolios. Results show a short-run relationship for both the high-risk and the low-risk portfolio. From the long-run perspective, there is only a relationship found concerning the high-risk portfolio. A modified CAPM-model is used as an interpretation when calculating abnormal returns, where the growth rate of industrial production reflects the expected return. Results show the presence of QE and abnormal returns for both portfolios during the time period of Covid-19, 2020-2022. / Denna uppsats syftar till att undersöka i vilken utsträckning Riksbankens kvantitativa lättnader bidrog till abnorm avkastning på den svenska aktiemarknaden under Covid-19. Den valdat idsperioden är 2007 – 2022, vilket inkluderar perioden före och efter genomförandet av kvantitativa lättnader i Sverige. Vidare inkluderar den valda tidsperioden två kriser, den globala finanskrisen samt Covid-19-krisen. Två artificiella portföljer konstrueras, där en representerar en högriskportfölj och den andra representerar en lågriskportfölj. Studien tillämpar en ADL error correction modell för att undersöka huruvida det existerar ett samband mellan kvantitativa lättnader och avkastningen för var och en av portföljerna. Resultaten visar ett kortsiktigt förhållande för både högrisk- och lågriskportföljen. Ur det långsiktiga perspektivet hittades endast ett samband för högriskportföljen. En modifierad CAPM-modell används vid beräkning av abnorm avkastning, där variabeln för den industriella produktionstillväxten reflekterar den förväntade avkastningen. Resultaten visar förekomsten av abnorm avkastning i samband de kvantitativa lättnader som genomfördes under Covid-19 för båda portföljerna under tidsperioden 2020–2022.

Since the term ESG was coined in 2005, the growth of sustainable investments has outpaced the overall asset management industry. A lot of research has been done with regards to the link between sustainability and financial performance, despite the fact that there is a lack of transparency in sustainability of listed companies. This thesis breaks down the word sustainability into two di↵erent categories, and in turn eleven di↵erent parameters. The result is the term Q score which represents a company’s sustainability. The purpose is to increase transparency in the fund selection process for asset managers. Further, a multiobjective optimization problem is solved to analyze the relationships between return, risk and sustainability. The main subject is that accommodating sustainability as a third parameter in addition to return and risk modifies the fund selection process. The result indicates that the relationships between sustainability, return and risk follow the ecient market hypothesis, implying that an investor would have to sacrifice risk and return in order to achieve higher sustainability. With that said, the results indicated that the sacrifice is relatively small, and that there are a number of sustainable portfolios that perform well. Moving on, the reporting of ESG company data is still lacking. For this reason, this master thesis acts as a precursor for any future development within the field. / Sedan termen ESG utvecklades år 2005, har tillväxten av hållbara investeringar vuxit snabbare än den generella förvaltningsindustrin. Mycket forskning har gjorts kring hållbarhet kopplat till finansiell avkastning, men trots detta saknas det fortfarande en transparens rådande hållbarhet av noterade bolag. Detta examensarbete bryter ned termen hållbarhet till två kategorier, vilket i sin tur bryts ner till elva kvantifierbara parametrar. Resultatet blir ett så kallat Q score, som är ett värde på ett företags hållbarhet. Syftet med arbetet är att öka transparensen av fonders hållbarhetsarbete. Vidare löses ett optimeringsproblem med tre parametrar för att undersöka förållandena mellan avkastning, risk och hållbarhet. Resultatet indikerar att dessa förhållanden följer hypotesen om effektiva marknader, vilket innebär att en investerare måste offra avkastning och risk för att uppnå en mer hållbar portfölj. Med det sagt, indikererar resultatet att en investerare inte behöver offra mycket inom avkastning för att uppnå en hållbar portfölj. Vidare kvarstår det mycket arbete inom rapporteringen av ESG data på företagsnivå. Av detta skäl anses detta examensarbete vara en föregångare innan datan utvecklas vidare.