<p>Today’s technology of music file sharing in peer-to-peer networks is genius. Peer-to-peer are networks composed of several computers enabling files to be shared among users. A substantial part of the files shared constitute unlawful copies; uploading and downloading of such files infringes copyright legislation. File sharing through peer-to-peer networks is therefore both a genius technology and a copyright infringement.</p><p>Peer-to-peer technology has been subject to heavy debate in media, both nationally and internationally. The issue of illegal downloads of music is an international dilemma since music is a global commodity. Sweden has been accused of being file sharers’ haven by organisations such as the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Internet access and broadband capacity is very high in Sweden, which is a reason why many Swedes engage in file sharing. The Swedish company, The Pirate Bay, is the creator of one of the most popular file sharing websites in the world, using the BitTorrent application. The website offers free downloading of <em>inter alia</em> music, films and software. Like most peer-to-peer networks the Pirate Bay website includes copyrighted material, which often is published without the consent of copyright holders. As a result The Pirate Bay is facing a lawsuit on behalf of numerous organisations and companies in the music and film industry.</p><p>The Pirate Bay is accused of contributory infringement and of preparation to commit a copyright infringement according to the Swedish Copyright Act (SwCA).  Contrary to the American copyright legislation, the SwCA does not contain any explicit provisions regarding contributory infringement. The SwCA refers to the Swedish Criminal Code, which states that preparation to copyright infringement and contributing to such infringement is illegal and punishable. There is currently a lack of Swedish case law regarding copyright infringement and there are no cases concerning contributory infringement. One reason is that the field of law is constantly changing; the copyright legislation is adjusted to the technological developments. The lack of case law causes unpredictability of the SwCA, which may be harmful to the rule of law. International organisations, such as the RIAA, consider the SwCA to be somewhat ineffective and that it needs to be amended in order to uphold the fundamental purpose of copyright.</p><p>Copyright is a partly harmonised area of law from a global perspective. However, since the Internet and file sharing through peer-to-peer networks is an international phenomenon, copyright legislation needs further harmonisation internationally. At the time there is an ongoing process of implementing the European Union (EU) Enforcement Directive into the SwCA, which grants greater rights to copyright holders. The Directive contains provisions that simplify the process of taking action against an alleged infringer, which may in the long run increase the amount of case law in Sweden. At the same time the implementation of the Enforcement Directive has been criticised as being too far reaching and intruding people’s privacy.</p><p>File sharing through peer-to-peer networks benefits consumers by offering easy access to a wide range of music for a low cost, at the same time enabling artists to reach out to a larger audience. Consumers are vital for the music industry, since they purchase the music. However, the fundamental aim of copyright is to reward copyright holders and function as an incentive to encourage creativity. Consequently, without economic rights the incentive to create is forfeit and music production might decrease. Even if the justification of copyright is primarily to protect creators of a work, it is also essential to emphasise the consumer aspect. Therefore it is of importance to balance the interests of all parties involved.</p><p>In order to uphold the purpose of copyright and interests of the general public, it is necessary to promote and develop more legal file sharing alternatives. Music in digital formats has to some extent replaced the traditional Compact Disc (CD) format. Therefore the music industry must cooperate with among others Internet Service Providers (ISPs) in order to embrace the digital developments of music and offer better solutions to consumers. Simultaneously, there is a lack of knowledge of copyright among the Swedish population, which is why more education is required. In conclusion, advertisement and education could decrease illegal file sharing and enhance all the parties’ interests.</p> / <p>Dagens fildelningsteknologi i peer-to-peer nätverk är genial. Peer-to-peer är nätverk bestående av flera sammankopplade datorer som möjliggör fildelning mellan användare. En betydande mängd av de delade filerna utgör dock olagliga kopior; uppladdning och nedladdning av sådana filer bryter mot upphovsrättslagstiftningen. Fildelning genom peer-to-peer nätverk är därför både genial teknologi och upphovsrättsintrång.</p><p>Peer-to-peer teknologin har väckt stor debatt i media, både nationellt och internationellt. Frågan kring illegal nedladdning av musik är ett internationellt dilemma eftersom musik är en global handelsvara. Sverige har kritiserats av organisationer som Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) för att vara en frizon för fildelare. Tillgången till internet och bredband är väldigt hög i Sverige, vilket är en anledning till varför många svenskar fildelar. Det svenska företaget The Pirate Bay som använder sig av BitTorrent protokollet, är skapare till en av världens populäraste fildelningssajter. Webbsidan erbjuder gratis nedladdning av bland annat musik, film och programvara. I likhet med de flesta peer-to-peer nätverk innehåller The Pirate Bay’s hemsida upphovsrättsskyddat material som ofta har blivit tillgängliggjort utan upphovsrättshavarens medgivande. Till följd av detta har ett flertal organisationer och företag inom musik- och filmindustrin ingett en stämningsansökan mot The Pirate Bay.        </p><p>The Pirate Bay är åtalade för medhjälp och förberedelse till brott mot upphovsrättslagen. I motsats till den amerikanska lagen om upphovsrätt innehåller inte den svenska upphovsrättslagen några uttryckliga bestämmelser rörande medhjälp till brott mot upphovsrätt. Upphovsrättslagen hänvisar istället till brottsbalken som stadgar att förberedelse och medverkan till brott är olagligt och straffbart. I dagsläget finns endast ett fåtal svenska rättsfall angående upphovsrättsintrång men inga fall kring medhjälp till upphovsrättsintrång. En bidragande faktor kan vara att rättsområdet ständigt ändras; upphovsrättslagstiftningen anpassas kontinuerligt till den tekniska utvecklingen. Bristen på svenska rättsfall leder till att upphovsrättslagens tillämpning blir oförutsägbar, vilket kan vara skadligt för rättsäkerheten. Internationella organisationer som exempelvis RIAA anser att den svenska upphovsrättslagen är ineffektiv och att ändringar behöver göras för att upprätthålla upphovsrättens grundläggande syfte.      </p><p>Upphovsrätten är till viss del en harmoniserad lagstiftning ur ett globalt perspektiv. Eftersom internet och fildelning genom peer-to-peer nätverk är ett internationellt fenomen behöver upphovsrättslagen ytterligare harmonisering på ett internationellt plan. I dagsläget pågår en implementering av Europeiska Unionens (EU:s) sanktionsdirektiv som tillerkänner större rättigheter till upphovsrättshavare. Direktivet innehåller bestämmelser som förenklar möjligheten för rättighetshavare att vidta åtgärder mot personer som begår upphovsrättsintrång, vilket på sikt kan komma att bidra till en ökad mängd rättsfall. Sanktionsdirektivet har samtidigt kritiserats för att vara alltför långtgående och inskränker människors rätt till privatliv.</p><p>Fildelning genom peer-to-peer nätverk är förmånligt för konsumenter genom att utbudet av musik är stort, lättillgängligt och till en låg kostnad; samtidigt ger nätverken artister möjligheten att nå ut till en bredare publik. Konsumenter är nödvändiga för musikindustrin eftersom de inhandlar musiken. Dock är det viktigt att upprätthålla det fundamentala syftet med upphovsrätt, vilket är att ersätta upphovsrättshavaren för sitt verk och fungera som ett incitament till att stimulera skapade. Utan de ekonomiska rättigheterna skulle uppmuntran att skapa nya alster gå förlorad, och musikproduktionen skulle minska. Trots att upphovsrätten rättfärdigas genom att skydda rättighetshavare så är det även angeläget att understryka värdet av konsumenterna. Det är därför av stor vikt att balansera samtliga parters intressen.</p><p>Det är nödvändigt att marknadsföra och utveckla fler lagliga fildelningsalternativ för att upprätthålla upphovsrättens syfte och samhällets intresse. Digital musik har till viss del ersatt det traditionella Compact Disc (CD) formatet. Musikindustrin måste därför samarbeta med bland annat internetleverantörer för att ta till sig den digitala utvecklingen av musik och erbjuda bättre lösningar till konsumenter. För närvarade har den svenska befolkningen otillräckliga kunskaper inom upphovsrätt, varför mer utbildning behövs. Avslutningsvis, skulle marknadsföring och utbildning kunna bidra till en minskning av den illegala fildelningen och gynna alla parters intressen.       </p>

「知識經濟」時代裡，知識透過流通而生成更多文化資產帶給人類價值。知識，向來就是共有共享的。但起自智慧財產權出現後，開始出現知識私有、知識買賣的情形出現。難道，是著作權(copyright)戰勝了著作義(Copyleft)？近年來全球掀起一片「告！告！告！」的熱潮，無論是美國的Napster訴訟案，還是台灣的「成大MP3」事件；還是微軟在美國的反托拉斯訴訟，或是在台灣面臨合理議價調查，都顯示「著作權」引發的相關問題蔓延全世界。 本研究將知識/文化商品視為資訊資本主義社會的生產工具，並且探討當「智慧」變成「財產」時，資本主義、國家機器爭權奪利的過程中出現的問題與爭議。研究者先就著作權的政治經濟脈絡耙梳出「著作權」不是「道德問題」，而是「經濟問題」，更是國際關係中藉以制衡弱勢小國的利器。 實證部分以1960-2002年間台灣著作權發展過程中三個衝突事件為例，包括1960年代的《大英百科全書》翻印風波、1980年代的「蘋果電腦侵權事件」，及1990年代跨國公司進入後的台灣流行音樂產業作為個案，具體驗證台灣著作權發展過程中，的確受到資本主義與國家機器及國際依賴關係的影響。最終以近年來網際網路發展蓬勃，連帶引出的著作權爭議作結，本研究除了對台灣著作權的政治經濟發展提出看法外，亦在結論中對知識/文化產業，及著作權規範的未來發展提出意見。 / Under knowledge-based economy, knowledge brings more value to human beings by spreading and then generating cultural properties. Although sharing is the essential characteristic of knowledge, there have been some arguments that knowledge is private and knowledge can be traded after the idea of intellectual property rights emerged. Does it mean Copyrights overtops “Copyleft”? In recent years, there have been more and more lawsuits related to copyrights such as Napster vs. RIAA in 1999 in the US, and IFPI vs. NCKU MP3 lawsuit in 2001 in Taiwan. Moreover, Microsoft, the worldwide leading software company, also faced US federal government’s antitrust violations prosecution, and rational price investigation by Taiwan government. All these cases indicate that copyright has caused problems all over the world. This thesis regards both the knowledge and cultural products as the producing tools of information capitalism society. It also discussed the conflicts between Capitalism and state apparatuses when “knowledge” became “property.” By examining the context of political economy in intellectual property, the author achieved two conclusions. First of all, the copyright is not a moral issue but an economic one. Secondly, in international society, copyrights have been the weapon for powerful nations to control the powerless ones. We cited three copyright conflicts in Taiwan from 1960-2002, including the reprint issue of Encyclopaedia Britannica in the 1960s, copyright violation case of Apple Computer in the 1980s, and the international pop music piracy disputes in the 1990s, the author made an empirical research to conclude that the development of copyright in Taiwan indeed was affected by the capitalism, the state apparatuses, and the international interdependency. This thesis ended with the prospective copyright issues originated from the burgeoning Internet industry. Not only did the research indicate some suggestions regard to the development of political economy in copyright, also made comments about the future development of knowledge/culture industry’s copyright regulation.

Καθώς η Κοινωνία της Πληροφορίας αναπτύσσεται με ταχύτατους ρυθμούς, οι τεχνολογικές κατακτήσεις από το χώρο της επιστήμης των υπολογιστών και τηλεπικοινωνιών, αποτελούν σημαντικό κεφάλαιο σε αρκετούς επιμέρους τομείς του κοινωνικού βίου, ανάμεσα στους οποίους είναι και ο Πολιτισμός. Η πολιτισμική ποικιλομορφία του υπάρχοντος υλικού και η διάθεση για αξιοποίηση της επιπρόσθετης εκπαιδευτικής του αξίας, σε συνδυασμό με την απαίτηση για διάσωση των πρωτότυπων έργων, συνθέτει ένα πολύπλοκο τεχνολογικό πρόβλημα με νομικές και κοινωνικές προεκτάσεις. Η διαδικασία της ψηφιοποίησης και η δημιουργία μιας νέας άυλης ηλεκτρονικής υπόστασης για τα έργα πολιτισμού, γεννά νέες δυνατότητες αλλά παράλληλα θέτει νέους περιορισμούς. Η έμπνευση και η δημιουργικότητα των καλλιτεχνών εκφράζεται με τα πνευματικά δικαιώματα, η προστασία και η διαχείριση των οποίων αποτελεί το αντικείμενο της διπλωματικής εργασίας. Το σύνολο των πνευματικών δικαιωμάτων και ο τρόπος που αυτά ορίζονται, δεσμεύονται, εγείρονται και μεταβιβάζονται, μεταβάλλεται ριζικά καθώς περνάμε από την πραγματική αναλογική μορφή στην άυλη ψηφιακή απεικόνιση. Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία, ορίζονται οι διάφοροι τύποι δικαιωμάτων πνευματικής ιδιοκτησίας και αποσαφηνίζονται οι δεσμεύσεις και οι περιορισμοί που προκύπτουν από αυτά συναρτήσει της Διεθνούς,της Ευρωπαϊκής και της Ελληνικής Νομοθεσίας. Επίσης, καθορίζεται η ενδεικτική διαδικασία που πρέπει να ακολουθηθεί από μια οντότητα (πολύ συχνά από έναν πολιτιστικό οργανισμό) για την εκκαθάριση των δικαιωμάτων των έργων που κατέχει, κατά τη διαδικασία της Ψηφιοποίησης με σκοπό την προβολή τους στο Διαδίκτυο. Σε δεύτερη φάση, μελετάται το ευρύ φάσμα των τεχνολογικών μέσων, τα οποία μπορούν να χρησιμοποιηθούν για την προστασία των πνευματικών δικαιωμάτων που δεσμεύουν τους ψηφιακούς πόρους, παράλληλα με κάποιο κατάλληλα επιλεγμένο σύνολο μεταδεδομένων. Ιδιαίτερο τμήμα της εργασίας, αποτελούν τα συστήματα ψηφιακής διαχείρισης των πνευματικών δικαιωμάτων (DRMs). Πραγματοποιείται αναλυτική παρουσίαση των προτεινόμενων προτύπων που πρέπει να ακολουθούν τα συστήματα αυτά, όσον αφορά την αναπαράσταση και μοναδική αναγνώριση των δεδομένων, αλλά και την αναπαράσταση των δικαιωμάτων μέσων των γλωσσών περιγραφής πνευματικών δικαιωμάτων. Τέλος, παρουσιάζονται, η αρχιτεκτονική, οι βασικές λειτουργίες και η υλοποίηση ενός πρότυπου συστήματος διαχείρισης πνευματικών δικαιωμάτων για ψηφιακές εικόνες. / As Information Society is rapidly developing, technological conquests in computer science and telecommunications are becoming a very important part in many areas of social life, including Culture. The diversity of the cultural material and the intention of utilizing the added educational value, combined with the demand for preservation of the original works, compose a complex technological problem with legal and social extensions. The inspiration and creativity of the artists are expressed by Intellectual Property Rights – IPR, the protection and management of which is the subject of this thesis. The set of rights as well as the way they are specified, rised, binded and assigned changes while we pass from the analog to the materialess digital display. In this thesis we define the several types of Intellectual Property Rights and clarify the engagements and restrictions that result from them in connection with the International, European and National legislation. We also define the process that an entity (usually a cultural organization) must follow in order to clear the rights of the works it owns, during a digitization process which will lead to publication on the Internet. In the second part we study the technological solutions that can be used for the protection of IPR in parallel with a suitable metadata set. A special part of the thesis is the study of Digital Rights Management Systems – DRMs. We analytically present the standards on which modern DRMs must be based on in terms of identification and declaration of digital resources, as well as the representation of rights through rights expression languages. Finally we present the architecture, basic functionality and realization of a new Digital Rights Management System for digital images.

Through more than five years of extensive, participatory research the writer became a fully integrated member of the World of Warcraft community he set out to study. By actually living the grounded practices that constitute the everyday life he concludes that the mundane, often repetitive practice has very little to do with the cyber-utopian claim that one can flee the body and become who they want on the Internet. Instead this doctoral thesis argues that the constant transitions of the borders between offline and online, virtual and real, body and avatar, play and work, player and producer are best described with the concept of leakage. Using leakage to describe the perforated borders that surrounds the game not only allows an understanding of World of Warcraft as a powerful site for production of meaning and culture but also places it far from the traditional understandings of separated fun, play and games. Play as an activity has traditionally been described with three intrinsic features: it is separable from everyday life, in particular from work; it is safe, meaning that it isn’t productive nor does it carry consequence and finally that play is pleasurable or fun. World of Warcraft doesn’t easily admit to these features and should not be understood as neither innocent utopia nor as a devoured mimesis, but rather as an expansion of the life space where players repeatedly and deliberately stretch beyond the producer’s intentions and create a world consisting of work, unwritten social norms, creativity and friendship. Players are social laborers that produce the core of what makes World of Warcraft what it is: a serious game.

Les produits du terroir occupent une place privilégiée dans le goût des consommateurs qui, aujourd’hui, s’intéressent davantage à connaître la provenance et les qualités des produits qu’ils consomment. Le Mexique a une grande variété de produits du terroir, appris et transmis aux producteurs de génération en génération, mais certains manquent de protection ou la protection est inefficace. Les producteurs du Mexique vivent souvent dans des conditions marginales, et l'imitation de leurs produits résulte en une réduction de leurs ventes. Ils sont souvent contraints à changer de métier. Cette situation met en péril le patrimoine national en raison de l’abandon des connaissances traditionnelles, lesquelles représentent l'identité et la diversité culturelle de la nation mexicaine. La « Ley de la Propiedad Industrial » (LPI) prévoit l'appellation d’origine et la marque collective en tant que mécanismes de protection; cependant, ils ne sont pas toujours adéquats pour assurer une protection efficace des produits du terroir. Notre objectif est d'analyser si l'inclusion de l’indication géographique à la LPI peut favoriser l’enregistrement des produits du terroir qui sont à risque de disparaître. Cette étude fait donc ressortir la nécessité de modifier la LPI afin qu’elle réponde mieux aux besoins et aux réalités du Mexique. / Local products occupy a privileged place in the preferences of consumers who are more and more interested in knowing the origin and the quality of the products they consume. Mexico has a great variety of “terroir products”, learned and passed on to producers from generation to generation, but some of them lack protection or their protection is ineffective. Mexican producers oftentimes live in marginal conditions, and the imitation of their products results in a reduction in sales. They are often forced to change their trade. This situation puts the national patrimony in jeopardy due to the abandonment of traditional knowledge, which represents the identity and cultural diversity of the Mexican nation. The « Ley de la Propiedad Industrial » (LPI) provides for the appellation of origin and the collective mark as mechanisms of protection; however, they are not always adequate to ensure an effective protection of “terroir products”. Our goal is to analyze whether the inclusion of the geographical indication in the LPI will strengthen the registration of “terroir products” that are at risk of disappearing. This study thus highlights the need to revise the LPI to better reflect the needs and realities of Mexico.

Darbe detaliai apžvelgiamos intelektinės nuosavybės techninės apsaugos formos, įvairios jų klasifikacijos, iš kurių šiame kontekste svarbiausias yra skirstymas į aktyvias ir pasyvias techninės apsaugos priemones. Darbe išsamiai analizuoti apsaugos mechanizmai, skirti intelektinę nuosavybę saugančių techninių apsaugos priemonių teisinei apsaugai, pradedant 1996 m. PINO autorių teisių, fonogramų gamintojų ir transliuotojų sutartimis, 2001 m. ES direktyva dėl autorių teisių ir gretutinių teisių informacinėje visuomenėje tam tikrų aspektų suderinimo, baigiant įvairių valstybių (įskaitant ir Lietuvos) nacionaliniu teisiniu reguliavimu. Atliktos teisinės informacijos analizės pagrindu atskleidžiamos intelektinės nuosavybės teisinių ir techninių apsaugos priemonių suderintos ir nesuderintos sritys ir daroma išvada, jog teisinės apsaugos mechanizmas, pasirinktas sureguliuoti techninių apsaugos priemonių naudojimą ir kitus susijusius veiksmus, buvo netikslus ir nepasiteisino, kadangi daugelis valstybių nacionaliniu lygiu skirtingai ir neatsižvelgiant į pirminius tikslus interpretavo ir įgyvendino techninių apsaugos priemonių teisinės apsaugos nuostatas. Praktinis situacijos tyrimas atskleidžia neigiamą visuomenės ir teisių gynimo institucijų požiūrį į pasirinktą teisinės apsaugos modelį ir į techninių apsaugos priemonių naudojimą apskritai, kadangi techninės apsaugos priemonės sukelia daug problemų teisėtiems intelektinės nuosavybės objektų naudotojams ir nedaro poveikio asmenims... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Master Paperwork thoroughly overviews technical protection measures of intellectual property and various classifications of them and determines the main differentiation in this work context – i.e. classification to active and passive technical protection measures. This paperwork also deeply analyses legal protection mechanisms of technical protection measures, starting WIPO Copyright, Phonogram producers and broadcasters treaties of year 1996, continuing to European Union directive on the harmonization of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society of year 2001 and finishing the analysis of the national legal regulations of different world countries, including Lithuania. Under the basis of the analysis of the legal information, the author reveals harmonized and incompatible areas between legal protection of intellectual property and technological protection measures and concludes that the legal protection mechanism, which was chosen to regulate the usage and other related actions of technological protection measures, was not correct and did not serve the purpose, because many countries diversely and without seeking primary goals of WIPO treaties interpreted and implemented the provisions of the legal protection of technological protection measures. The practical survey of the situation reveals negative opinion of society, scholars and justice institutions concerning the chosen legal protection model and concerning the usage of technological... [to full text]

The privileges arising from patent protection on pharmaceutical products often prevent the full realization of the right to health, especially in developing countries with scarce resources. This thesis first identifies the international agreements that have established the right to health in international law, obligations and violations associated with it, the problems encountered in the implementation of human rights on the field, compared with the implementation and sanctions associated with economic rights from the World Trade Organization regulatory framework. A comparative study of the legislative frameworks of both developed and developing countries will reveal to what extent Canada, the United States, the European Union, Brazil, India, and South Africa conformed with patent protection exceptions arising from international patent law to protect public health. Finally, the author identifies the crucial indicators that need to be considered in order to assess the conformity of a given approach with the right to health, before he underscores the temporary character of the relevant WTO measures, and the future stakes concerning an increased access to essential medicines. / Les droits issus des brevets d'invention sur les produits pharmaceutiques empêchent souvent la réalisation pleine et entière du droit à la santé, plus spécialement dans les pays en voie de développement ayant des ressources plus limitées. Ce mémoire de recherche retrace d'abord les accords internationaux ayant établi le droit à la santé en droit international, les obligations et les violations qui en découlent, la problématique quant à la mise en oeuvre des droits de l'homme sur le terrain, en comparaison avec la mise en oeuvre et les sanctions pour le non-respect de droits économiques dans le cadre réglementaire de l'Organisation Mondiale du Commerce (OMC). Ensuite, une étude comparative des cadres législatifs de pays développés et de pays en développement révèlera dans quelle mesure le Canada, les États-Unis, l'Union Européenne, le Brésil, l'Inde, et l'Afrique du Sud se sont conformés aux exceptions aux règles de protection issues du droit international des brevets pour cause de santé publique. L'auteur identifie finalement les points de première importance qu'il considère primordial de considérer afin d'évaluer si une approche conforme au droit à la santé a été respectée dans le commerce de médicaments essentiels, avant de souligner l'aspect temporaire des mesures courantes prévues dans l'OMC et des futurs enjeux quant à l'accroissement de l'accès aux médicaments essentiels. / "Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de Maîtrise en droit des biotechnologies". Ce mémoire a été accepté à l'unanimité et classé parmi les 10% des mémoires de la discipline. Commentaires du jury : "Le jury est impressionné par l'ampleur de la recherche et de la synthèse très instructive du débat Nord-Sud".

Le droit de la propriété intellectuelle présente, depuis quelques années, un intérêt particulier à l'évolution de la recherche sur les plantes. Ceci s'est traduit, au plan international, par l'adoption de plusieurs instruments visant à assurer une meilleure protection des investissements consentis dans ce domaine. Il s'agit notamment de la Convention de l'UPOV, qui s'inscrit dans une logique de protection par la voie sui generis avec la possibilité de délivrance de certificat d'obtention végétale aux sélectionneurs; de l'Accord ADPIC, qui, en plus de recommander un système sui generis efficace, ouvre l'option de protection par brevet ou en définitive par le cumul des deux systèmes; de la Convention sur la Diversité Biologique (CDB) et du Traité de la FAO portant sur les ressources phytogénétiques pour l'alimentation et l'agriculture, qui, favorables aux deux précédentes formes de protection, demandent que soient prises en compte des considérations relatives aux droits souverains des pays sur leurs ressources végétales, au partage des bénéfices, etc. Au plan régional, on distingue, entre autres, l'initiative de l'Afrique, visant à assurer la protection des plantes suivant une logique partagée entre l'alignement sur les normes internationales existantes (Accord de Bangui) ou l'institution d'une autre législation originale qui reflète les réalités et préoccupations du continent (Loi modèle). Il apparaît donc qu'il existe plusieurs instruments pour cerner la même réalité. Ceci est forcément la source de quelques difficultés qui sont d'ordre conceptuel, socioéconomique, environnemental et juridique. Pour les pallier, il est important que certaines conditions soient satisfaites afin d'harmoniser les points de vue entre les différents acteurs concernés par la question et d'assurer une appropriation conséquente des instruments adoptés. / The intellectual property rights have showed increasing attention to the evolution of plant research in recent years. This has been reflected, at the international level through the adoption of several measures to ensure a fairly comprehensive protection of rights arising. These measures include the Convention of the Union for the protection of Plant breeder' Rights, which is part of a logic of protection through sui generis with the possibility of issue plant breeders' rights to breeders; the Agreement on Intellectual Property Rights Related to Trade, which, in addition to recommending an effective sui generis system gives the option of protection by patent or by the combination of the two systems of law to protect plant varieties; the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, which supported both previous forms of protection, ask to be taken into account considerations on sovereign rights of nations over their plant resources, benefit sharing, and so on. At the regional level, there are the initiative of the Africa which aimed to ensure the protection of plants following a certain vision shared between alignment on existing international standards or the institution of another original legislation which reflects the realities and concerns of the continent. It then appears that there are several tools to handle the same reality, which can be a source of difficulty. These are difficulties are conceptual, socio-economic, environmental and legal. T0 overcome these difficulties, it is important that certain conditions are met to harmonise points of view between different actors involved in the issue and ensure a consistent ownership of the instruments adopted.

Le présent mémoire a pour ambition d'analyser la nature juridique et les particularismes du contrat de progiciel. Dans une première partie, nous examinerons les obligations mises à la charge des parties puis nous tenterons de qualifier le contrat de progiciel au regard du droit civil. Dans une seconde partie, nous examinerons la formation du contrat de progiciel dans un environnement traditionnel puis dans les environnements électroniques. Nous aborderons plus particulièrement deux nouveaux modes de formation des contrats, que sont les mécanismes du «shrink-wrap» et du «click-wrap». Nous analyserons ensuite les clauses limitatives ou exonératoire de garantie et de responsabilité, la clause d'élection de for et les clauses relatives à la propriété intellectuelle. / This thesis is intended to analyse the nature and the particularities of software license package contracts. Firstly, the obligations of each party will be studied, after which it shall be endeavoured to qualify the software license package contract with regard to civil law. Secondly, the creation of the software license package contract in a generalised situation as well as in an electronic environment will be examined. Furthermore, two new methods of contract creation will be contemplated, namely the "shrink-wrap" and the "click-wrap" methods. Finally, clauses limiting or exonerating responsibilities and guaranties, the de for election clause and clauses in relation to intellectual property will be analysed.

L'Accord sur les Aspects des Droits de Propriété Intellectuelle qui touchent au commerce constitue l'un des principaux piliers des accords de l'Uruguay Round. C'est aussi l'un des plus controversés. Cet Accord renforce les droits de propriété intellectuelle, les associe au commerce et introduit une norme mondiale ayant force exécutoire. La mise en application de cet Accord, qui suppose notamment de reconnaître et de renforcer la protection des produits et procédés pharmaceutiques par des brevets, pose des problèmes particuliers aux pays en développement vu le manque de ressources professionnelles, financières et d'infrastructure. La manière dont se fait l'interprétation de cet Accord peut avoir d'importantes répercussions sur les politiques de santé publique et, en particulier, sur l'accès des populations aux médicaments. Soumis aux pressions des pays riches et des groupes pharmaceutiques, les gouvernements des pays en développement se retrouvent parfois pieds et poings liés et n'utilisent pas les flexibilités prévues à leur avantage dans l'Accord, ce qui rend la situation sanitaire de leur population encore plus précaire. Cette étude décrit les principaux acteurs et les étapes importantes de la négociation de l'Accord, ainsi que les différentes adaptations qui en ont été faites sous les pressions contradictoires des nombreux protagonistes. Elle donne des explications sur les mécanismes en place et les conséquences possibles de l'entrée en vigueur de l'Accord sur l'accessibilité des pays en développement aux médicaments. / The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights is one of the main pillars of the agreements of the Uruguay Round. It is also one of the most controversial. This agreement strengthens the intellectual property rights, ties them to trade regulation and introduces a global binding standard. The implementation of this Agreement, which includes the recognition and the strengthening of the protection of pharmaceutical products and processes by patents, raises particular problems for developing countries, given the in lack of professional over financial resources as well as their poor economics infrastructure. The interpretation of this Agreement can have important consequences on public health policies and in particular on people's access to medicines. Unless the pressure of rich countries and pharmaceutical companies, governments of developing countries sometimes find themselves bound hand and foot and do not use the flexibilities provided to them by the Agreement to improve their position, thus making the health situation of their people still more precarious. This study describes the main actors and the important stages of negotiating the Agreement, as well as the various adjustments that were made under the pressures of numerous actors. It provides explanations of the existing mechanisms and of the potential consequences of the implementation of the Agreement on the accessibility of developing countries to medicines.