本論文探討500年來巴西政府對印第安人以及對非洲系人的民族同化政策。首先，殖民政府以利用印第安人勞力為目的，試圖使印第安人融入主體社會中，但最後印第安人受到保護區的隔離；其次，為了解決非洲系人的差異問題，且受到社會達爾文主義的影響，巴西在1890年開始採取以混種為目標的白化政策，卻在1970年代受到國內外輿論的壓力而被迫放棄白化政策。 本論文運用各種歷史文獻來探討巴西印第安人和巴西非洲人的民族同化過 程，分析政府在不同時期的同化政策有什麼轉變，並且解釋民族同化政策的結果為什麼走向失敗，最後演變為多元化的局面。 為了呈現巴西民族同化政策的全貌，將政策區分為三個階段來分析。第一階段，從殖民開始到巴西獨立為止（1500～1822），是政府對印第安人納為臣民的奠基期；第二階段，從巴西帝國時期到巴西成立共和國前夕（1823～1889），是印第安人受到監護對待的時期；第三階段，自建立共和國並採取白化政策起，到放棄白化政策為止（1890～1970），是非洲系人受到強制同化的時期。 本研究發現，16世紀以來政府對印第安人的同化政策，以及1890年以後政府對非洲系人的同化政策，都趨向失敗，歸納有以下三個因素：（1）非洲系人與歐洲系人的人口數量有懸殊差異；（2）印第安人及非洲系人兩者，並未與做為主體民族的歐洲系人混居，且印第安人在20世紀因政府實施保留地政策而免於被同化；（3）相較於南美其他國家，巴西政府對非洲系人的民族同化政策起步緩慢。這些因素進而促使巴西走向多元化。

文化是當代最具尖銳性的議題之一，不同文化所造成的差異與衝突，更對法規範產生莫大的衝擊。以憲法面向來說，各種文化保障主張均以入憲為最終訴求，並藉此要求國家必須予以最高的尊重。然而，入憲不僅有其門檻限制，某些想法更與既存憲法體系有所齟齬。至於法律面向，儘管國會議員制定諸多相關文化保護法規，但因此對文化所造成的影響亦非無疑。因而，有關文化的諸多問題，必須採取其他更細膩的作法。 本書基於上述想法以及文化所具有的多元、進化及傳統等各種特色，採取部門憲法的觀點以整合文化領域的特性，進而在人民的基本權利與國家的基本國策詮釋上，顯現文化對憲法所能作用的範圍。根據本書初步的觀察，文化不應僅是狹義的教育、科學、藝術等三大領域，更應及於個人內心意志和外在認同的生活形態、行為模式以及價值觀等廣義文化面向。因此在文化憲法的角度下，文化並非僅受到特定基本權的保障，而是每個基本權內涵的形成過程，都應加入文化的考量，以免排除或忽視不同文化族群的需求。順此脈絡，本書強調在基本權限制上，內在文化自我意識必須受到絕對的保障，而外在文化的表現則應受嚴格檢驗，並且國家對文化資源的分配亦需嚴守平等原則。 在此認知之下，本文提出文化憲法下的文化自由權與文化平等權，並具體檢討國內的原住民族議題和語言爭議

This thesis is a compilation of ethnographic narrative and ethnohistorical research in the form of a case study of the Bunun people of the Laipunuk geographic region of Taiwan. The research encompasses the life experiences of three members of the Istanda family, with cross verification of narrative history from extant documentation where possible. Informants were videotaped, audio taped, and where not possible, extensive and detailed notes were taken. Some informants also served as translators for others; one particularly valuable source is conversant in the Bunun language, Japanese, Chinese, and English, providing invaluable material and insight. This report begins with an overview of indigenous peoples, their prehistory, and their relationship with the greater Austronesian culture. This is followed by a brief survey of each indigenous culture’s social organization, with emphasis on the Bunun. Included is a political survey of major transformational and developmental periods in Taiwan’s history, beginning with the Dutch East India Company period, and ending with the modern Democratic Reform period. I have concluded, based on my extensive work with these indigenous peoples and my examination of available historical documentation, that Taiwan’s indigenous people have endured constant pressure from external forces and, as a direct result, have undergone acute social and cultural degradation from the loss of their native homelands. Nevertheless, vast knowledge is still available from elderly informants born into a relatively pristine Bunun culture. This knowledge contributes to the field of Taiwan Studies by providing an objective survey across the history of Taiwan’s indigenous peoples, offering a view through a previously closed window into the richness of Taiwan’s full history. It is recommended that such studies continue and expand. Key words: Bunun, Laipunuk, Austronesian, Taiwan, ethnohistorical, indigenous

融入臺灣：外國人使用智慧型手機為整合工具的經驗 / Expats living in East Asian nations have a distinctly fresh view of the burgeoning cultures around them. The field of media ethnography has largely ignored this view in favor of domestic perspectives, focusing on virtual ethnography, digital observation, and the collection of empirical data within these local populations. Taiwan is a fast-evolving nation state, with an ever-increasing foreign community and a mobile phone penetration rate of 98%. This study, recounted from the eyes of an American expat living in Taiwan, examines the successes and pitfalls Western nationals face when using their smartphones to overcome cultural barriers, maintain social relationships, and build an identity overseas. The research itself takes shape through a series of one-one-one interviews, concentrating on five subjects of differing age, gender, travel background, language level and locale. The second focus is on in-depth, on-site participant observation of these individuals interacting with Taiwanese locals and attempting to build a life for themselves away from home. Observations of their daily lifestyles, combined with interview content, sheds light on the intentions and contradictions they face in using their smartphones to traverse their environment. The goal of this study is to draw a detailed and nuanced picture of the expatriate experience and image in Taiwan, as well as analyze the ability of Westerners to use technology to integrate into Taiwanese culture.

台灣與其中華文化並不像伊斯蘭人民將回教有很強的宗教關聯性。然而歷史上回教和穆斯林在中華的歷史中扮演著一個重要的角色。從1990年代初期，從東南亞有一批勞動者移民來到台灣，並在當地工作。近期，印尼籍的工作者已達到20萬人，他們成為台灣外籍工作者中數量最大的一群。在這當中，絕大部分的印尼籍勞動者都是穆斯林。為了保留自己的身分認同與文化，這群身在台灣的印尼籍穆斯林竟而形成了以宗教為主的許多社群，並因應在地差異與台灣的華人穆斯林進行社會適應上的交流與互動。 此篇研究的目的在於為台灣的回教與穆斯林研究踏出第一步，尤其是印尼穆斯林與當地的華人穆斯林如何進行社會適應，以及在台灣這樣一個異地環境，身為少數族群的他們如何保有自己的身分認同。此研究採用質性研究方法進行資料蒐集，並以集中性的田野調查中第一手資料的蒐集與觀察進行文獻探討，這些調查資料來自臺北、桃園、中壢、台中以及高雄等地。 此研究發現印尼籍穆斯林聚集並在台灣形成特定的印尼穆斯林組織，並與華人穆斯林有著積極互動，形成他們社會適應過程中的一環。然而，由於文化背景的差異，這些印尼穆斯林社群更需要改變他們社會中的生活習慣以因應在台灣的生活。 / Taiwan and its Chinese culture is not associated with Islam as religion and Muslim people. However, historically Islam and Muslim play an important role in Chinese history. Starting in early 1990s, there was a growing number of immigrant worker, mainly from South East Asian countries to Taiwan to work in informal sector. Currently Indonesian numbered 200,000, and become the biggest in terms of foreign workers in Taiwan. Majority of these Indonesian workers are Muslim. In order to preserve their identity and cultural life, the Indonesian Muslim in Taiwan formed various religious-based community, do a social adaptation with their environment and interact with Chinese Muslim in Taiwan. The objective of this study is to initiate the study of Islam and Muslim development in Taiwan, specifically how the social adaptation of Indonesian Muslim with Chinese Muslim in Taiwan, as well as how they preserve their identity as ethnic minority in Taiwan. Qualitative approach on data collection was undertaken, using literature review followed by collecting primary sources from intensive field research and observation in Taipei, Taoyuan, Chungli, Taichung and Kaohsiung. It’s found that Indonesian Muslim gathered and formed some Indonesian Muslim organizations in Taiwan, and they actively interact with Chinese Muslim as the part of their social adaptation. However, due to some differences in cultural background, those Indonesian Muslim communities need to adapt their habit and social life in Taiwan.

「語言權」係以國際人權法為發祥的新興人權概念，本文聚焦於個人選擇其母語為自由使用權利之探討。語言除了作為溝通工具之外，亦是個人身分認同的依存和集體文化的具體展現。隨著世界文化多樣性宣言、保護及促進文化表現多樣性公約的制定，以尊重個人自主地選擇其所認同的文化生活方式來維持文化多樣性環境的思維逐漸受到關注，本文採取此觀點作為保障語言權的理論基礎，以此開展並探討國家的角色和義務。 我國歷史上因國家公權力強制推行單一語言政策，限制人民自由使用其母語的權利和機會，形成語言不平等的現象，進而影響政治、經濟資源的分配不均，也使得母語面臨消逝和凋零的危機。語言權利保障非僅是我國的國內議題，亦是國際關懷的面向，本文以探討國際法的語言權利保障架構為始，接著以境內存在多元語言現象並致力少數語言保障的歐洲為研究對象，而後聚焦於比利時和法國，比較兩國如何從法制面處理語言權利保障的問題和經驗，提供我國參考和省思的題材。 本文主張我國應透過修憲方式明文增列語言權利的保障，直接賦予人民享有請求語言權保障的直接憲法法源依據，然在現階段未修憲之前，我國憲法增修條文既已肯認多元文化價值，配合具有國內法效力的經濟、社會暨文化權利公約第15條揭示文化權的保障，應可藉由文化權的概念內涵開展語言權的集體和積極的性質。此外，多元文化價值亦成為拘束國家機關行為和政策的準則方向，國家必須負起積極義務，應逐步消除目前因公私領域區別導致語言權利承認與否的差異，建置相關制度以維持母語的使用和活絡，確保各語言的語言權利平等，使珍貴的語言文化資產得以永續發展。

本研究以文獻分析法及實地訪談法等方式，以剖析台灣原住民族土地財產權制度從共同所有到個別所有的演變關係。研究主題包括：一、明析原住民族土地財產權制度演變歷程的要因與結果；二、明析日治時期迄今，不同統治者標舉「理蕃」政策或山地政策所隱含的決策目的，及統治者實現其決策目的採取的行為措施，暨這些決策目的與行為措施如何影響原住民族土地財產權制度演變；三、明析原住民族土地財產權制度演變的結果，對於原住民族的發展造成何種影響。 透過上述研究主題，希望達成三點目的：一、分析日治時期迄今，原住民族土地財產權制度從共同所有演變為個別所有的過程、原因與結果，俾能連貫相關文獻的成果；二、分析日治時期迄今，統治政權賦予原住民族土地權利所隱含的決策目的、採取的行為措施，及其影響原住民族土地財產權制度演變之進程，以檢討「理蕃」政策或山地政策是否達成為原住民族謀求福祉的目標；三、分析原住民族土地財產權制度演變對於原住民族發展的影響，以供未來重新建構原住民族土地財產權制度的參考。 研究進行期間，除蒐集並整理研析關於原住民族土地財產權制度之相關文獻，作為建立研究架構及佐證研究內容之基礎外，更深入山地鄉瞭解原住民族對土地財產權問題之意見，俾使論證內容更為周延有據。茲摘述研究發現如次： 一、日治初期原住民族社會慣行的土地財產權制度方面 （一）部落為領域內土地財產權最大的共同所有團體。 （二）部落內耕地、獵地或漁區歸屬組成部落之社經團體共同所有。 （三）組成社經團體之家族（家庭）享有其範圍內土地之使用、收益權。 （四）共同所有之土地財產權，無繼受問題；惟土地之支配、管理者隨部落或社經團體之領導者更迭而變更。 （五）土地之使用、收益權，依各族群之家產法則繼受。 二、土地財產權制度演變對於原住民族發展之影響方面 （一）原住民族產權領域急遽限縮，個別原住民使用保留地的權利範圍亦趨於微小，平均每人不超過3甲土地。 （二）原住民族土地利用型態，由日治初期之「半耕、半獵」變成目前的定耕農業。 （三）原住民族與平地人民的所得差距，益趨擴大，且所得來源以非農業收入為主。另者，山地原住民仰賴保留地為生甚深，但其土地生產力仍屬偏低。顯示賦予原住民族土地財產權個別所有，仍無法提昇其經濟能力。 三、不同時期政府政策影響原住民族土地財產權制度演變之比較方面 （一）日治時期統治者之「理蕃」政策以攫取山地資源，回饋其宗主國經濟需求為要；光復時期統治者之山地政策在於維持原住民族社會安定，以鞏固政權為要。 （二）日治時期統治者之決策措施為「理蕃」措施；光復時期統治者之決策措施為山地政策措施。 （三）日治時期統治者之執行機制，以武力裝備的山地警察為主；光復時期統治者以不具武力裝備的一般行政機關為之。 四、詮釋分析觀點之事實方面 （一）制度的建立與發展具有累積性的「相互依存」特性，因此日治時期形成高砂族保留地制度授予保留地個別使用權，或光復時期形成原住民保留地制度賦予保留地個別產權，不同時期政府均事先實施相關「理蕃」措施或山地政策措施配合之。 （二）「資源攫取」為影響殖民政府是否實踐、落實「給予一定土地，使其耕種就業」之「理蕃」政策理想的重要因素。 （三）「政權鞏固」為影響政府實踐、落實「改善原住民族生計能力，提高其地位」之山地政策理想，及積極進行增劃編保留地的重要因素。 （四）殖民政府或我政府在面對各種主客觀條件時，均會權衡利弊得失而採取不同方法、手段、措施來趨利避禍、自求多福，以謀求自身最大的福祉與利益。 （五）在原住民族土地財產權演變過程中，因統治者界定高砂族保留地時缺乏考量原住民族傳統土地財產權觀念，且這些觀念仍發揮指導原住民族使用土地的作用，因此殖民政府根本未能有效監督、管理高砂族越界開墾之情事。 綜合本研究之論證與分析，歸納下列幾點結論： 一、日治初期原住民族社會以部落及部落內各種社經組織共同所有土地財產權，而組織成員則享有土地之使用、收益權能，並透過這套原住民族社會公認的土地財產權制度約束其內部的行為規範，達到維持社會秩序，減低護衛土地財產權的交易成本功效。 二、從討論分析瞭解，不同時期政府實施「理蕃」政策及山地政策的結果，未能達成為原住民族謀福祉的政策理想。其因在於，「理蕃」政策以掠奪山地利源為要；而山地政策以鞏固政權為考量，均在謀求統治者自身最大的利益，造成原住民族權益的損失。 三、日治時期迄今，原住民族土地財產權制度從共同所有演變為個別所有的結果，造成原住民族土地財產權不斷流失，且未能有效提昇其經濟能力，使得原住民族之地位日趨沒落。因此，保留地制度及保留地財產權型態允宜適度調整，未來可考量留設一定面積保留地，土地財產權改賦原住民族共同所有，以確保原住民族賴以生存的機盤，並維護其文化存續發展。 四、原住民族土地財產權制度變遷的過程，衍生原住民族與平地人民對於保留地財產權之爭議，政府宜妥適圓滿解決，創造族群共榮的多元社會。 五、本研究以「資源攫取」、「政權鞏固」及「制度相依」等因素分析原住民族土地財產權制度演變的觀點，均能從相關事實獲得合理詮釋。 / This dissertation conducted extensive literature research and field interviews in an attempt to explore the changes from the tribe ownership to the private ownership system of Taiwan aborigines’ land ownership right. The themes and the expected accomplishments of this research include the following: 1. To study the history and current status of Taiwan aboriginal land ownership right, to analyze the causes and consequences of the changes in the past, and to verify the findings with other scholars’ arguments in the literature. 2. To study the ruling mentality, rationale, policies and regulations towards Taiwan aborigines from the Japanese occupants to the ROC government, to analyze the impacts of these policies on Taiwan aboriginal land ownership right, and to explore whether Taiwan aborigines have benefited from such policies and regulations. 3. To study the overall impacts on Taiwan aborigines’ economical and cultural development, which was resulted from the changes to their land ownership right through the execution of different policies. The findings of this research could serve as recommendations to the government in setting up revised aboriginal land reservation policies for Taiwan aborigines. Through extensive literature research and field interviews with a few senior Taiwan aborigines about their memories, comments, and expectations with respect to aboriginal land ownership right, the following facts can be summarized: 1. The Land Ownership Right Before Japanese Occupancy a. The tribe leaders rule the land within a tribe’s territory. b. Each piece of farmland, hunting field, and fishing field belongs to a societal/economical group within a tribe. c. The societal/economical group has the right to farm or hunt on their assigned lands and owns the produce from the lands. d. Because the land is owned by a societal/economical group, there is no inheritance issue. The managing of the land is by the leader of the group. e. Traditionally members in a societal/economical group have the right to farm/hunt on a piece of land as well as to own the produce from the land. 2. The Impact of Land Ownership Right Changes on the Development of Taiwan Aborigines a. The land ownership right policies have limited the accessibility of Taiwan aborigines to land resources. Each aborigine has access to less than three aches of reserved land. b. The land reservation policy limited the aborigines to farm within their reserved land have changed the aborigines’ life style from half time farming and half time hunting to full time farming. c. Because productivity of each aborigine farm on his own reserved land is very low, the gap between the average income of aborigines and nonaborigines has been widening. Besides, the majority of aborigines’ income should come from non-agricultural sources. This reflects the fact that giving aborigines a piece of reserved land did not benefit them economically. 3. The Comparison of Different Land Ownership Right Policies by Different Governments a. The Japanese occupants’ aboriginal policy focused on seizing Taiwan’s mineral, forestry, and agricultural resources. While the ROC government’s aboriginal policy was only reactively trying to keep the stability of the aborigines. b. The Japanese occupant’s aboriginal policy was to “manage” Taiwan aborigines. While the ROC government’s aboriginal policy was a land reservation policy. c. The Japanese occupants ordered armed policemen to implement its aboriginal policy. While the ROC government’s aboriginal policy was executed by civilian officials in local governments. 4. Some Observations a. The Taiwan aboriginal policies by the ROC government and the Japanese occupants have its relationship. The Japanese occupants adopted land reservation policy for the aborigines, which led to private use of reserved lands. The ROC government has consequently adopted a more extensive land reservation policy for aborigines, which led to private ownership of reserved land by all aborigines. The policy of awarding private use privilege of land to aborigines by both governments had always been accompanied by the intention to manage the aborigines. b. Seizing Taiwan’s natural resources was the real agenda by the Japanese occupants behind their slogan of “awarding aborigines land to farm”. c. Maintaining the ROC government’s ruling power was the main interest behind her aboriginal policy of “improving aborigines’ quality of life and social status”. d. Even though the Japanese occupants and the ROC government chose different means and regulations to implement different aboriginal policies, avoiding pressures and satisfying their own agenda was what’s driving their aboriginal policies. e. The Japanese occupants did not appreciate Taiwan aborigines’ perception of land while awarding reserved lands to the aborigines. However the Taiwan aborigines disrespected the boundary of their reserved land, and the issue became unmanageable. Conclusions 1. Before the Japanese occupancy, Taiwan aboriginal tribes and the social/economical groups within the tribes rule the land they use. Members in a social/economical group have usage rights over a piece of land, and own the produce from that land. Because this system was well respected by all aborigines, there was little conflict or social cost with respect to land ownership right. 2. The past aboriginal policies failed to improve the aborigines’ quality of life. The interests of the two governments were either to seize Taiwan’s resources or to secure the ruling government’s political power. Taiwan aborigines’ welfare was sacrificed. 3. Taiwan aborigines’ perception about land ownership right changed from commonly owned by everybody to pieces of privately owned land. This reservation land policy for aborigines not only against the aborigines’ philosophy and lifestyle, but also violated economic principles of efficiency and productivity. Another conflict of interests arose due to competing over the reserved land to the aborigines by the nonaborigines. The land resources reserved for the aborigines have long been diminishing. Consequently, most Taiwan aborigines suffer from economic hardship and social disadvantage. 4. This research has explored the problems in the disputes land reservation policy for the aborigines. The following two recommendations are suggested: a. The government should actively resolve all over the reserved land for the aborigines. This can give back to the aborigines such land they deserve for generations. Resolving land disputes can also improve the relationship between all residence in Taiwan. b. Knowing the disadvantages of privately owning reserved land by aborigines, this research recommends that the government allocates additional portion from the total reserved land to the aborigines, which can be managed by aboriginal tribes and shared by all aborigines. Increasing the accessibility to more natural resources by aborigines will be a direct measure to improve Taiwan aborigines’ economic income, while in the same time, preserve their pride and cultural heritage. 5. This research has based on theories of “seizure of natural resources”, “securing governing power”, and “institutional dependence” to analyze the changes in Taiwan’s aboriginal land ownership right, and its negative impact to Taiwan aborigines’ life. Recommendations to government with respect to modifying the current aboriginal land policy were suggested.

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(地域研究) / 甲第21898号 / 地博第244号 / 新制||地||90(附属図書館) / 京都大学大学院アジア・アフリカ地域研究研究科アフリカ地域研究専攻 / (主査)教授 太田 至, 准教授 高田 明, 特定准教授 西 真如 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Area Studies / Kyoto University / DGAM

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・論文博士 / 博士(地域研究) / 乙第12824号 / 論地博第16号 / 新制||地||57(附属図書館) / 31311 / 京都大学大学院理学研究科生物科学専攻 / (主査)教授 木村 大治, 教授 池野 旬, 准教授 山越 言 / 学位規則第4条第2項該当 / Doctor of Area Studies / Kyoto University / DFAM

京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(人間・環境学) / 甲第19941号 / 人博第793号 / 新制||人||191(附属図書館) / 28||人博||793(吉田南総合図書館) / 33027 / 京都大学大学院人間・環境学研究科共生文明学専攻 / (主査)教授 大川 勇, 教授 前川 玲子, 教授 細見 和之 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Human and Environmental Studies / Kyoto University / DGAM