The concept duty of care is defined as heedful, careful guarding, supervision of a minor, and/or overseeing. An obligation rests on teachers to scrupulously see to the safety (and also the well-being) of all learners entrusted to them. Hence teachers are responsible for the physical safety of learners and for creating a safe haven for them. The Civil Technology workshop teacher has an increased caring duty towards his learners due to the potential life-threatening circumstances and conditions that can prevail in his workshop compared to, for instance, the ordinary classroom environment. Furthermore, a specific legal duty rests on a person when he is placed in control of dangerous objects or machinery, seeing that he has to see to it that he ensures the safety of others through positive action. Internationally, the circular saw is statistically speaking seen to be the most dangerous woodwork machine in the Civil Technology workshop. Circular saws are responsible for more accidents than any other machine, and the most claims for damages against teachers and school managements also arise from it. Due to the underlying dangers inherent to circular saws and the presence thereof in Civil Technology workshops, it increases the risks attached to the caring supervision duty of the Civil Technology teacher to a great extent. Civil Technology workshop teachers are therefore confronted by unique challenges in their workshops. Hence it is essential that they be equipped with sufficient knowledge pertaining to educational law so as to make head against these challenges. Civil Technology workshop teachers should therefore not only be aware of all common law principles, relevant legislation and case law as applicable to workshops, but also be able to apply it in practice in the workshop environment. This practical application furthermore requires workshop teachers to be knowledgeable to be able to maintain workshop machinery in a safe working condition through regular upkeep and maintenance. An empirical investigation (n=38) was launched, based on a questionnaire filled in by all Civil Technology teachers and their heads of department North West where Civil Technology is presented as a choice subject at high schools. The aim of the empirical investigation was to determine: * what the level of Civil Technology workshop teachers‘ expertise and knowledge is regarding legal key issues concerning their caring supervising duty, and * to what extent effective safety management of woodwork machinery in Civil Technology workshops is applied. The empirical investigation found, amongst others, that: * The respondents do not have sufficient knowledge of the principles pertaining to educational law to apply it in the Civil Technology workshops of the study population practically. * Civil Technology workshop teachers and heads of department should have a high degree of expertise with a view to execute their duty of care. Poor educational law training can possibly be proffered as reason why their level of expertise cannot be seen to be sufficient in a case where an increased level of duty of car is required in potentially dangerous workshops. Following on above-mentioned findings, specific recommendations were made to all role-players involved that are involved in learner safety in Civil Technology workshops. These recommendations may possibly contribute to increased and more effective caring supervision in promoting learner safety. / Thesis (MEd (Education Law))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2012

The fastest growing field of law is undoubtedly that of Medical Law with the civil and disciplinary cases flowing from it. Globalization, international communication, development and evolution of Law as well as Medicine, cause this worldwide rising medical litigation. Humanitarian rights, post-modern scepticism and even iconoclastic attitudes contribute to this phenomenon. Medico-legal litigation and disciplinary complaints rise (in South Africa) up to 10 per cent per year. To assist the courts and legal profession, in medico-legal issues, helping the parties where the plaintiff has the burden of proof and the defendant for rebuttal, a medical expert witness must be used. The dilemmas and pitfalls arise, in that although knowledgeable medical experts could be used to guide the courts to the correct decision, the lack of a legal mind setting, court procedure and legal knowledge could affect the relevance, credibility and reliability, making the medical evidence of poor quality. The legal profession, deliberately, could “abuse” medical expert witnesses with demanding and coercion of results, which have unrealistic and unreasonable expectations. “Case building” occurs, especially in the adversarial systems of law, making the medical expert vulnerable under cross-examination, when it is shown that the witness has turned into a “hired gun” or is unfair. Thus, lacunae develop, making reasonable cases difficult and a quagmire of facts have to be evaluated for unreasonableness, credibility and appropriateness, compounded by the fact that seldom, cases are comparable. The danger is that the presiding officer could be misled and with limited medical knowledge and misplaced values, could reach the wrong findings. Several cases arguably show that this has led to wrongful outcomes and even unacceptable jurisprudence. The desire to “win” a case, can make a medical witness lose credibility and reasonableness with loss of objectivity, realism and relevance. With personality traits and subjectivity, the case becomes argumentative, obstinate and could even lead to lies. The miasmatic, hostile witness emerges, leading to embarrassing, unnecessary prolongation of court procedures. The medical expert witness should be well guided by the legal profession and well informed of the issues. Medical witnesses should have legal training and insight into the legal and court procedures. At the time of discovery of documents, via arbitration or mediation, medical experts should strive to reach consensus and then present their unified finding, helping the parties fairly and expediting the legal procedure and processes. / Private Law / LLM

Uppsatsen ämnar undersöka det interna hotet inom organisationer som medförs av mänskliga misstag och ovarsamhet hos anställda. Syftet med uppsatsen är att identifiera orsaker bakom misstagen och ovarsamheten, redogöra för några konsekvenser av det och även undersöka hur utformningen och arbetet med IT-regler, som är regler och riktlinjer för IT-säkerhetsarbete, bör utföras för att minimera misstag och ovarsamhet. Till det har en undersökning av tidigare litteratur och en kvalitativ datainsamling gjorts, den kvalitativa undersökningen innefattade intervjuer med ett E-handelsföretag, ett IT-konsultföretag samt en IT-säkerhetskonsult. Teori och insamlad data har analyserats och genererat ett antal förslag, där bland annat ett anpassat språkbruk och kategorisering av IT-regler men även kontinuerlig utbildning av anställda förespråkas för att förebygga anställdas misstag och ovarsamhet. Därigenom förebyggs det interna hotet. Uppsatsens framförda förslag kan användas av alla typer av företag som vill förbättra sin IT-säkerhet genom att förebygga det interna hotet som orsakas av de anställda. / The study aims to investigate the internal threat within organizations caused by human mistakes and negligence amongst employees. The purpose of this paper is to identify reasons for the mistakes and the negligence, describe some of the consequences and also investigate how the design of and work with IT policies, which is a set of rules and guidelines for IT security work, should be performed to minimize mistakes and negligence. A survey of previous literature has been conducted and a qualitative data collection has been made. The qualitative data collection included interviews with an e-commerce company, an IT consulting company and an IT security consultant. Previous literature and collected data have been analysed which resulted in a set of suggestions, for instance that customized language usage and categorization of IT policies, together with continuous training of employees is advocated to help prevent employees' mistakes and negligence. Thereby minimizing the internal threat. Any type of company that wants to improve its IT security by preventing the internal threat caused by its employees will benefit from these suggestions.

A dissertação trata da responsabilidade especial prevista no art. 40 da Lei 6.024/74 para os administradores de instituições financeiras frente aos credores sociais na hipótese da quebra da instituição. É discutida a natureza dessa responsabilidade, se objetiva ou subjetiva, buscando seu exato conteúdo. O tratamento adotado é interdisciplinar, envolvendo diversas áreas do direito e da economia. O direito constitucional fornece a tábua de valores para o sistema, impondo limites, e a teoria geral do direito contribui com a análise do conteúdo e a finalidade das normas de responsabilidade, com o regramento prudencial do Banco Central servindo para o detalhamento das condutas. São então utilizadas as ferramentas de análise econômica do direito, particularmente a teoria dos jogos para a modelagem de um regime de responsabilidade subjetiva, e outro de responsabilidade objetiva, como jogos estratégicos, na forma normal e na extensiva, identificando os pontos de equilíbrio e de eficiência, O resultado aponta para uma ineficiência do modelo de responsabilidade objetiva para o administrador. O modelo de responsabilidade subjetiva revela-se mais eficiente, apontando como desejáveis as ferramentas de delação premiada e inversão do ônus de prova, para mitigar problemas de assimetria de informação entre depositante e instituição financeira. A dissertação conclui que a responsabilização objetiva do administrador seria inconstitucional e ineficiente, e que o regime jurídico atual é de responsabilidade subjetiva, mas que pode ser aprimorado, especialmente tornando mais claras as regras aplicáveis. / The dissertation analyzes financial institutions\' managers\' special liability to creditors in the event of bankruptcy, as established by Brazilian Law 6.204/74 article 40. Its discussed the nature of such a liability, whether a negligence standard or strict liability rule, seeking to clarify its full extent. The approach is interdisciplinary, using many fields of both law and economics. Constitutional Law provides the goals and values for the system, and General Theory of Law contributes to analyzing the content and purpose of liability rules, with the Central Bank\'s prudential supervision rules detailing actions. The tools of economic analysis of law are then used, particularly game theory to model a system based on a negligence standard, and another based in a strict liability standard, as strategic games in both normal form and extensive form, identifying the points of equilibrium and efficiency. The result points to an inefficient model of strict liability for the administrator. The model based on a negligence standard is shown to be more efficient, pointing as desirable tools that grant immunity to whistleblowers and reverse the burden of proof, to mitigate problems of asymmetric information between depositors and financial institutions. The dissertation concludes that the strict liability of the manager would be unconstitutional and inefficient, and that the current legal regime is that of negligence standard liability, but it can be improved, particularly by clarifying the rules.

A presente pesquisa tem por objetivo analisar o uso do método da proporcionalidade para decidir questões acerca de direitos sociais. Nesse sentido, antes relacionada somente à proibição do excesso (Übermaßverbot), a proporcionalidade passa a ter reconhecida sua outra face, denominada proibição da proteção insuficiente ou deficiente (Untermaßverbot). O legislador e o administrador passam a ter suas ações balizadas pela proibição do excesso de intervenção e pela imposição da intervenção para proteção de direitos. O termo pouco usual se refere ao controle judicial das omissões do legislador e administrador, na medida em que orienta a atividade deles quando da conformação e implementação dos direitos sociais. Os escassos estudos na doutrina não permitiram o desenvolvimento do método em relação aos direitos sociais no Brasil, em que pese a jurisprudência do Supremo Tribunal Federal se utilizar da proporcionalidade como proibição da proteção insuficiente ou deficiente em alguns de seus julgados, especialmente em época recente. Mas se a utilização de tal método na argumentação judicial passa a ser vista de forma recorrente, o Tribunal deve primeiro ter clareza de seus elementos quando pretende invocá-lo em suas decisões e até mesmo firmeza da utilidade de seu uso quanto a esses direitos. Ainda, tem-se que o transplante de métodos de revisão judicial dos direitos de defesa para os direitos sociais merece estudo específico, tanto em relação à concepção desses direitos quanto à possível aplicabilidade da proporcionalidade, pois as diferenças entre eles apontam que nem sempre ambos os direitos comportarão argumentações idênticas para os problemas que enfrentam. / This research aims to analyze the use of the proportionality method for deciding social rights questions. Thus, the proportionality was related before only to prohibition of excessive state actions (Übermaßverbot), begins to have its other face recognized, called prohibition of lacking or insufficient state actions (Untermaßverbot). The legislator and administrator now have their actions bounded by the prohibition of \"excessive intervention\" and by the imposing of \"intervention to protection\" rights. The unusual term refers to the judicial control of the omissions of the legislator and administrator, in so far as guides their activity of conformation and implementation of social rights. The few studies on the doctrine did not allowed the development of the method regarding the social rights in Brazil, notwithstanding the fact that the jurisprudence of the Supreme Court uses proportionality as prohibition of lacking or insufficient state actions in some of its decisions, especially recently. But if the use of such a method in the judicial argumentation starts to be seen recurrently, the Court must first get clear of its elements when intends to invoke it in their decisions and even firmness of utility of its use regarding such rights. Also, the transplantation of judicial review methods of defense rights for social rights deserves a specific study, both in relation to the understanding of these rights and in relation to the possible applicability of proportionality, cause the differences between them suggest that not always both rights shall include arguments identical to the problems they face.

La théorie de la responsabilité civile, en termes de la reconstruction rationnelle du droit constitue une connaissance nouvelle et importante de ce régime. L’analyse économique en reconstruit les règles et les institutions à partir de la norme de l’efficience. La théorie morale de la justice corrective interprète la responsabilité civile à travers l’égalité entre les parties. Mais, aucune de ces deux interprétations ne parvenue à expliquer la responsabilité civile. L’analyse économique, en traitant les règles de la responsabilité comme un moyen visant à maximiser la richesse, a modifié leur sens original. La justice corrective réduit la responsabilité civile au régime d’allocation équitable des coûts d’accident. La reconstruction de la responsabilité civile, afin de la comprendre, requiert de s’engager dans une approche philosophique qui trouve la rationalité dans la réalité. Dans cette optique, la responsabilité civile, contrairement à l’analyse économique ou à la justice corrective, est constituée à partir les droits et les principes indéniables, non les normes hypothétiques. La faute, en termes de droit de la volonté subjective, tout est redéfinie selon la pratique sociale sur l’attribution des résultats de nos actes, ce qui permet de croire que la responsabilité civile est toujours morale, même lorsque elle s’impose à partir d’une évaluation objective et extérieure. / Tort theory in terms of rational reconstruction of the law has constituted a new and important knowledge of the tort liability. Economic analysis has reconstructed the rules and institutions by the value of efficiency. Moral theory of corrective justice has interpreted liability through equality between the parties. But neither of these interpretations could come to explain liability. The economic analysis by treating the liability rules as a mean of wealth maximization has changed their original meaning. Corrective justice reduced tort liability to the regime fair allocation of accident costs. The reconstruction in order to understand civil liability requires engaging in a philosophical approach in which reality is the source of rationality. In this context, liability, unlike the economic analysis or corrective justice, is formed from undeniable rights and principles, not hypothetical norms. The negligence in terms of right of the subjective will is redefined by social practice on the attribution results of our actions, which suggests that civil liability is still moral idea, even when it is imposed from an objective and external assessment.

This dissertation analyzed court decisions in injuries on school grounds cases under the Louisiana Governmental Claims Act. The question addressed was: How have the Louisiana courts interpreted the Louisiana Governmental Claims Act in litigation against Louisiana school districts and their employees? The intent of this study was to show how Louisiana's legal system has evolved, and how that evolution affected tort cases involving school boards and school board employees. Doctrinal legal research was the methodology used to answer the research question. To limit the number of cases analyzed, this study only focused on tort claims involving injury on school property. In order to gain a broad perspective, tort claims cases filed prior to the 1974 Louisiana Constitution, cases filed after the 1974 Louisiana Constitution, and cases filed after the 1995 Louisiana Liability Limits Amendment, and the Louisiana Governmental Claims Act of 1996 were analyzed. By analyzing the tort claims brought against Louisiana school districts and employees during the various time-periods, it was clear to see how the case rulings reflected the frequent changes of the Louisiana Constitution and its' laws. In the end, the state continued to control who could sue them and how much they would pay in damages.

Den skadeståndsrättsliga principen om den skadelidandes skyldighet att begränsa sin skada ärväl känd och vedertagen i svensk rätt. Principen åberopas ofta som invändning iskadeståndstvister av alla slag, och har därmed stor praktisk betydelse. Principens köprättsligaoch försäkringsrättsliga motsvarigheter är generöst behandlade i doktrinen. På denskadeståndsrättsliga sidan förhåller det sig annorlunda – det här är första gången som ämnetblir tillägnat ett eget arbete i Sverige. Det finns många rättsfall där skadebegränsningsskyldigheten aktualiseras, men på grund avdomskälens utformning är rättsfallens värde som vägledning begränsat. Jag anser emellertid attuppmärksamheten inte bör överfokuseras på dessa. Intar man ett framåtblickande perspektiv,finns det gott om material och idéer att hämta från den övriga civilrätten, från rättsekonominoch – inte minst – från utlandet. Arbetets strukturella och metodologiska ramverk är utformatså, att största möjliga nytta kan dras av främmande källor utan att en djupgående (och oftastointressant) komparativ utredning av dessa källor behöver göras. Det huvudsakliga syftet med undersökningen var att definiera skadebegränsningsprincipensansvarsgräns. Med hänsyn till framställningen omfattning, hade det inte varit möjligt att göragrundliga utredningar av enskilda delproblem. Istället är arbetet fokuserat på att utrönaallmängiltiga riktlinjer, tankemönster och ledtrådar, dels för skadebegränsningsbedömningen isig, och dels för den tänkbara rättsutvecklingen. Ett flertal sådana riktlinjer har kunnatdefinieras, något utspridda över principens tillämpningsområde, och ibland även i sammanhangdär det inte är uppenbart att det är skadebegränsningshänsyn som styr. Samtidigt har åtskilligasystemiska problem uppdagats såväl i principens tillämpning som i den underliggandenormbildningen. Jag har ödmjukt lagt fram några lösningsförslag, med ändamålet att främja enmer rättssäker tillämpning av principen, dels på grundval av gällande rätt, och dels på grundvalav den tänkbara rättsutvecklingen på området. / The doctrine of avoidable loss is a generally recognized principle in Swedish law. The doctrine is often invoked in damage claim disputes of all kinds, and is therefore important in practice. There is plenty of legal literature where the doctrine is treated in the context of sales law and insurance law. On the tort law side, however, there is nothing – this is the first dedicated work on the subject in Sweden. There are many tort cases where the question of avoidable loss is actualized, but due to the way the courts articulate the grounds for their rulings, the cases provide little guidance for the future, and therefore have little value as precedent. This is not necessarily an obstacle to the study. On the contrary, when looking outwards, I have found a wealth of ideas and study material in other areas of civil law, in law and economics, and in foreign law. The structural and methodological framework of the thesis was designed to allow for extraction of material from foreign sources without needing to conduct a thorough (and often uninteresting) comparative study. The main purpose of the investigation was to define the boundaries of the claimant’s liability as imposed by the doctrine. Considering the limited scope of the thesis, it would not have been possible to deconstruct the subject into details and conduct thorough investigations of those. Instead, the work was focused on determining general guidelines, thought patterns and clues; both de lege lata and de lege ferenda. Multiple such guidelines could be defined in various contexts where the doctrine is applied, but also, interestingly, in certain contexts where it is not obvious that considerations of avoidable loss are decisive. Multiple systemic issues have also been found, both in the application of the doctrine and in the underlying norms. I have humbly put forward several suggestions on how these issues could be alleviated to promote legal certainty in the doctrine’s application, both today and in the future.

As a point of departure in this inherently interdisciplinary endeavour, the concept "Holistic Multidisciplinary Management" ("HMM") is introduced a.s a macrocosmic adaption of principles of project management. In line with HMM, a number of submissions regarding terminology and definitions in the interdisciplinary context of medicine (and particularly clinical psychiatry) and law, are made, and the foundations of medical malpractice are examined. Building on the various foundations laid, specific types of conduct that can constitute clinical-psychiatric malpractice, are addressed. A common theme that emerges in the various contexts covered, is that the psychiatrist must negotiate various proverbial tightropes, involving inter alia tensions between restraint and freedom, excessive and insufficient medication, becoming too involved and not being involved enough with clients, as well as client confidentiality and the duty to warn third parties. It is concluded that law and medicine. must work harmoniously together to establish appropriate balance. This can be achieved only if mutual understanding and integrated functioning are promoted and translated into practice. / Law / LL.M.

本文將負面醫療結果(醫療傷害)統稱為醫療事故(medical incident)，而醫療事故中又分為醫療過失(medical negligence)、醫療不幸（medical mishap，又名醫療災禍）及醫療意外(medical accident)三種情況。造成醫療傷害可能是因為醫療的過失責任，也可能是無醫療過失責任，本文特意將無醫療過失責任再細分為無過失責任、非過失責任與無法律責任（自然死亡或自然病程）三種，並將「無過失責任」no fault liability一詞泛以「無關過失責任」稱之；醫療行為中可預知的合併症與副作用的「醫療不幸」及不可預知、不可抗力的「醫療意外」屬非過失責任範疇，而不可避免性的自然死亡及自然病程，則屬無法律責任的範疇。 責任負擔可分為賠償、補償、救濟三種。賠償者，以不法之侵權行為，致使他人受損害時，因而填補其所受之損害，謂之賠償，英文為indemnity。補償者，指根據該法所指定的人員敲定的額度提供的金錢補助，而不是指針對不法行為或違反契約依法起訴所獲得的補償性賠償金，英文為compensation。救濟者，特別指由國家向貧困者提供的財政幫助，英文為relief。 過失責任的歸責原因是醫療疏失，所以是以損害填補原則及不當得利禁止原則，以填補受害者所受損害及所失利益；因此，過失責任要負的是損害「賠償責任」。非過失責任的歸責原因包括醫療不幸（即副作用、合併症）與醫療意外兩種，因為醫師客觀上已盡注意義務，不論有無結果預知義務或結果迴避義務，醫師已盡力防阻，仍不免發生醫療傷害，故並無醫療疏失可言，應由國家社會對受害者予以救濟；因此，非過失責任理應由福利國家的救濟制度來負責。無關過失責任no fault liability的歸責原因是危險責任，針對所有醫療事故，不論對錯無關過失下，只要有了醫療傷害，加害人就予以被害人限額補償的基本保障。因為醫師身為危險責任主體，依報償責任理論（利之所存，險之所擔）、危險控制理論及危險分擔理論下必須承擔危險責任，因以，無關過失責任應負醫療事故補償責任。 賠償、補償、救濟三種責任負擔都可以分別採用基金模式或保險模式來解決；本文則認為，醫療過失責任宜採取醫師專業責任保險，予受害人損害賠償。醫療無關過失責任宜採取醫事人員強制責任保險，輔以醫療事故特別補償基金，予受害人基本保障補償。醫療非過失責任宜採取醫療風險救濟基金，予受害人風險救濟，急難救助。 故本文結論提出事故補償、風險救濟、損害賠償三階層的保險與基金制度架構，以解決醫療糾紛民事責任問題即；第一層事故補償—針對醫療事故，以醫事人員強制責任保險無關過失，限額補償；第二層風險救濟—針對醫療意外，整合醫療風險救濟基金定額救濟；第三層損害賠償—針對過失責任，以醫師責任保險損害填補。 / In this paper, we study negative outcomes associated with the delivery health care, which are collectively referred to as “medical incident”. This is further divided into “medical negligence”, “medical mishap” (also known as “medical disaster”), and “medical accidents”. Medical injuries may be in consequence of medical negligence or otherwise, that is they may be with fault or without fault. In this paper we further medical injuries without fault into three categories: (1) liability regardless of fault, (2) liability without fault, and (3) no legal liability. Notably, we refer to “no-fault liability” as “liability regardless of fault” to better distinguish its legal implications with respect to other kinds of medical injuries without fault. Predictable complications and side effects of medical treatments are considered “medical mishap”; unavoidable natural death or nature course of disease have “no legal liability”. The burden of duty can be divided into three categories: indemnity, compensation, and relief. Indemnity is secondary to the violation of rights leading to injury and damages. Compensation is set by appointed experts and given in direct consequence of the occurrence of the injury, and is independently of the determination of legality and contract fulfillment. Relief specifically refers to financial assistance given by government entities to those in need. At-fault liability follows medical negligence, and as such indemnity is given for reparation of damages and the prohibition of gains from the provision of negligent medical care. Causes of liability with no fault include medical mishaps and medical accidents. In these cases, the physician has fulfilled duties as medical professionals and in so doing have done their best to prevent medical incidents. Nevertheless due to circumstances beyond control, medical injuries occur. Because there is no negligence on the part of the physician, these losses are ideally dealt with by the governmental agencies. Liability regardless of fault attributes liability based on risk alone. Under this system, for all medical incidents, whether or not they are the consequence of negligence, the victim receives relief at a pre-determined amount. This relief serves as the basic protection of patients. Since the physician as the chief medical care provider is also at the center of medical risk, by principles of risk management, liability regardless of fault should in addition be organized as medical incidents compensation. The three forms of duty burden–indemnity, compensation, and relief–can be organized either as foundations or as insurances. We argue that duty burden for medical negligence is best managed by professional liability insurance to provide compensation to the victims. Medical liability regardless of fault is best managed by compulsory medical provider liability insurance with additional medical incidence compensation fund to provide at least a basic level of compensation to the victims. Medical liability without fault is best managed by medical risk relief fund for assistance for the victims. In conclusion, in this paper we analyze various forms of liability and management of medical risks, and propose the use of professional liability insurance for medical injuries with fault, compulsory liability insurance for liability without fault, and relief fund for liability regardless of fault, in the setting of medical incidence. This provides a comprehensive, three-layered solution to the emerging problem of proliferation of medical incident cases in the courts. The first layer is incidence compensation, directed at all medical incidents, via compulsory medical personnel liability insurance regardless of fault. The second layer is risk relief, directed at medical mishaps and medical accidents, via risk relief funds. The third layer is damage indemnity, directed at at-fault liability, via physician professional liability insurance, to fulfill the victims’ damages.