技術標準化與相關智慧財產權保護，一直以來為智慧財產權法與競爭法的交集與爭議的話題。其中又以標準必要專利侵權糾紛為主。基於標準必要專利權人與前在被授權人雙方的立場，其中目前最具爭議的問題應該涉及禁制令救濟的適用性或以F/RAND授權原則為基礎的抗辯來排除侵權。 標準制訂組織（Standard Setting Organization, SSO）訂定F/RAND授權原則承諾（Fair, Reasonable And Non-Discriminatory）於其智慧財產權政策，要求標準專利權人應以公平、合理且無歧視的授權條件，向所有標準實施者提供授權。F/RAND授權原則承諾之發展，目前趨向於強調專利權人的契約義務，以第三方受益人的立場來平衡授權當事人的談判地位；如何「符合F/RAND授權原則之授權」，目前各國尚未有明文法律解釋，對於F/RAND授權原則承諾之清楚定義與規範，目前僅有法院及競爭法主管機關之見解。 在標準必要專利訴訟中，台灣廠商處於被告之身分的狀況居多。面對禁制令的威脅，如何更清楚地了解目前各管轄法院的看法以決定訴訟或談判策略更是重要。本文整理美國、歐洲及亞洲國家之管轄法院案例，加上對競爭法架構下的標準專利授權規範的分析，最後整理如何讓F/RAND授權原則承諾成為對抗禁制令有效抗辯。希望本文能為涉及標準專利訴訟之台灣廠商提供有價值的參考意見。 / Technology standardization and intellectual property protection has been an overlapping and controversial issue between Intellectual Property laws and Competition Law, particularly when it comes to infringement on F/RAND encumbered Standard Essential Patent, SEP. From both standard essential patent owner and potential licensee’ perspectives, the most questionable issue is whether injunctive relief should be available to the holder of F/RAND encumbered SEP who committed to license on fair, reasonable and non-discriminatory (F/RAND) terms, in order to prevent a third-party implementer from practicing a standard reading on that SEP, when such implementer is willing to take a license but the parties disagree on the terms of the license. Furthermore, the definition of F/RAND has never been clearly defined by statutes or interpreted by any judiciary; interested parties could only refer to decisions or guidelines made by the judiciaries or competition authorities in different countries. It is rather common for Taiwanese companies to face F/RAND encumbered SEP law suits as the defendants. Given the even severer threat of injunctive relief, it becomes more important to understand the position each judiciary takes on this issue to have appropriate strategies on law suits and negotiation. This thesis is accordingly written on the following perspectives: firstly, starting with discussion about F/RAND-encumbered SEP law suits in the United States, Europe and Asia; secondly, bringing in SEP encumbered disputes or investigations into framework of Competition Law from competition authorities among different countries and lastly trying to present possibilities that F/RAND commitment as a cause of action under Contract Law can be applied as defense to overcome injunctive relief sought by F/RAND-encumbered SEP licensors. Meanwhile, this thesis is expected to provide Taiwanese companies valuable strategies to law suits or disputes involving F/RAND-encumbered SEPs.

From the Proceedings of the 1974 Meetings of the Arizona Section - American Water Resources Assn. and the Hydrology Section - Arizona Academy of Science - April 19-20, 1974, Flagstaff, Arizona / The doctrine of prior appropriation used in the arid western states has encouraged rapid exploitation of our natural water resources. Those who beneficially used the water first, regardless of type of use or efficiency, obtained a perpetual right to always be first. As frontiers for exploiting our natural resources shrink, the Appropriation Doctrine is changing under the stresses of the 1970's. Our water allocations system is changing as new water -use priorities emerge along with changing quality standards. Government at all levels, along with planners and engineers, must understand the institutional and legal constraints put on water development by our historic water rights system so that intelligent decisions can be made in developing and maintaining our natural water resources.

Mervärdesskatterättsligt särbehandlas omsättning av upphovsrätter genom tillämpning av en reducerad skattesats. I 7 kap. 1 § 3 st. 8-9 p. ML hänvisas direkt till upphovs­rättslagen för bedömningen av förekomsten av en upphovsrättsligt skyddad prestation och rättighetens övergång. Föreligger en mervärdesskatterättslig omsättning av eko­nomiska värden samtidigt med en upphovsrättsligt giltig upplåtelse eller överlåtelse av en upphovsrättsligt skyddad prestation ska omsättningen beskattas med en reducerad skattesats om sex procent. Uppsatsen utreder intrångsersättning enligt 54 § 1 st. URL i relation till det mervärdes­skatterättsliga omsättningsbegreppet och den reducerade skattesatsen i 7 kap. 1 § 3 st. 8-9 p. ML.  Ersättning enligt 54 § 1 st. URL ska erläggas då ett intrång i upphovsrätten kan konstateras. Ersättning ska alltid utgå oavsett god tro och även i fall där upphovs­mannen, genom t.ex. positiva sidoeffekter, tjänat på intrånget. I doktrin har det därför uttalats att ersättningen inte utgör skadestånd, något som lagstiftaren uttryckligen klassificerat den att vara. Vid en granskning av ersättningens karaktär och syfte i rela­tion till upphovsrättslagens regler för rättighetens övergång framgår att en upphovs­rättsligt giltig överlåtelse eller upplåtelse inte föreligger vid en transaktion som föranlett ersättningsskyldighet enligt 54 § 1 st. URL. Enligt 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML är detta en förutsättning för att transaktionen ska omfattas av den reducerade skattesatsen. I ett mervärdesskatterättsligt perspektiv står det emellertid klart att ersättning enligt 54 § 1 st. URL är tänkt att spegla de förhållanden som hade gällt om parterna ingått avtal på för­hand och att det finns ett ostridigt samband mellan ersättningens storlek och det faktiska nyttjandet av rättigheten. Således skulle ersättningen mervärdesskatterättsligt kunna jämställas med en upplåtelse av nyttjanderätt. För tillämpning av den reducerade skatte­satsen i 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML är ett jämställande med upplåtelse ur mervärdes­skatterättslig synpunkt emellertid inte tillräckligt. Mervärdesskattelagens ovillkorliga koppling till upphovsrättslagen i 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML medför att en upplåtelse ska prövas enligt upphovsrättslagens regler för rättighetens övergång. Den samlade slutsatsen av uppsatsens utredning är följaktligen att ersättning enligt 54 § 1 st. URL kan omfattas av det mervärdesskatterättsliga omsättningsbegreppet. Mervärdesskattelagens ovillkorliga koppling till upphovsrättslagen innebär emellertid att ersättningen inte kan omfattas av 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML och den reducerade skattesatsen om 6 procent. Ersättningen utbetalas till följd av ett intrång och avsaknaden av en uttrycklig överenskommelse hindrar en tillämpning av 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML. / VAT turnover of copyrights are subject to a reduced VAT-rate. In the Value added tax act (ML) the paragraph of 7 kap. 1 § 3 st.  8-9 p. ML refers directly to the Copyright act (URL) for the assessment of the existence of a copyright and, the sale or lease of such a right. If a taxable supply is at hand while, simultaneously, a legally valid lease or sale of a copyright can be established, the turnover is taxed at a reduced VAT-rate of six percent. The thesis investigates intrusion compensation under Article 54 § 1 st. URL relative to the value added tax turnover concept and the reduced rate in 7 kap 1 § 3 st.  8-9 p. ML. Compensation according to Article 54 § 1 st. URL must be paid when an infringement of copyright is at hand. Compensation should always be paid regardless of good faith and even in cases where the holder of the right has earned revenue by e.g. spin-offs. In the legal literature, it has therefore been expressed that Article 54 § 1 st. URL does not con­stitute damages, something that the legislature explicitly has classified it to be. When reviewing the character and purpose of the compensation in relation to URL, and its rules for the transition of the right, it is clear that a valid transition does not exist in a transaction that has prompted compensation under Article 54 § 1 st. URL. According to 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML, this is a prerequisite. For the transaction to be covered by the reduced VAT-rate, a valid transition, according to the general rules of the rights transition in URL, must be at hand. However, from a VAT-perspective, compensation under 54 § 1 st. URL is meant to reflect the conditions that would have been if the concerned parties had reached an agreement in advance. There is an undisputed link between the remuneration and the actual use of the right. Thus, the compensation could be deemed equal to a lawful lease of copyright. For the purposes of the reduced tax rate in 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML, an equation of the compensation to a lawful lease of copyright is not sufficient. The provision is directly connected to URL and any transition of copyright must therefore be examined under the URL's rules for the transition of rights. The overall conclusion of this thesis is therefore that compensation under 54 § 1 st. URL may be subject to VAT. However, due to the unconditional connection to URL, the turnover cannot qualify for the reduced tax rate of six percent stipulated in 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML. The compensation is paid as a result of an infringement of copyright and the absence of an explicit agreement prevents the application of the reduced tax rate in 7 kap. 1 § 3st. 8-9 p. ML.

Europos žmogaus teisių konvencijos 10 straipsnyje numatyta saviraiškos laisvė apima laisvę gauti informaciją ir idėjas bei laisvę jas skleisti. Konvencijos 8 straipsnyje įtvirtinta kiekvieno asmens teisė į privataus ir šeimos gyvenimo apsaugą, būsto neliečiamumą ir susirašinėjimo slaptumą. Įgyvendinant vieną Konvencijoje numatytą teisę dažnai kyla kitų įtvirtintų teisių gynimo problema. Ypač tai aktualu taikant Konvencijos 10 straipsnį, kuris labai dažnai konfliktuoja su Konvencijos 8 straipsniu. Esminis principas, kuriuo vadovaujasi Europos žmogaus teisių teismo praktikoje, pagrįstas tuo, kad Konvencijos 10 straipsnyje įtvirtinta nuomonės reiškimo laisvė negali pažeisti asmens teisės į jo privataus gyvenimo neliečiamumą. Europos Žmogaus Teisių Teismas nėra nustatęs konkrečių privataus gyvenimo apsaugos ir nuomonės reiškimo laisvės ribų, t.y. kiekvienu konkrečiu atveju turi būti atsižvelgiama į esamą situaciją ir šios situacijos aplinkybes. Interesų balanso principas turi būti taikomas praktiškai įgyvendinant Konvencijos 8 straipsnį ir 10 straipsnį. Būtina rasti “pagrįsta balansą” ir nuspręsti, kokia Konvencijoje garantuojama teisė konkrečiu atveju turi viršenybę kitos teisės atžvilgiu. Teismas visų pirma analizuoja tokius kriterijus: ar nuomonės reiškimo laisvė atitinka visuomenės interesą žinoti tam tikrą faktą ar situaciją, ar šis visuomenės interesas yra svarbesnis už asmens privataus gyvenimo apsaugą, ar tam tikros informacijos paskelbimas yra pagrįstas egzistuojančiu... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / Article 10 of the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights is devoted to the freedom of expression, which includes freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas. Article 8 of the Convention protects private and family life, home, correspondence of every individual. By implementing one Conventional right a problem of other right’s protection often occurs. It is a matter of great relevance while implementing Article 10 of the Convention which very often conflicts with Article 8 of the Convention. The fundamental principle which European Court of Human Rights invokes in his case- law is based on the view that freedom of expression which is guaranteed in Article 10 of the Convention, cannot violate the right to respect for one’s private life. European Court of Human Rights has not set down particular limits of the private life’s protection and freedom of expression. It means that in each case the Court has to examine the existing situation and its circumstances. So the principle of “interest balance” has to be applied while implementing Articles 8 and 10 of the Convention in practice. It is essential to find the “reasonable balance” and to decide, which right guaranteed under the Convention will have the priority over another in each case. Firstly, the Court has to analyze these criterions: whether the freedom of expression satisfy the public’s interest to get particular information about certain facts or situation, whether this public’s... [to full text]

Le Québec reçoit chaque année un nombre croissant de travailleurs agricoles temporaires, à travers deux programmes : le Programme des travailleurs agricoles saisonniers (principalement Mexicains) et le Programme des travailleurs peu qualifiés (pour l’instant Guatémaltèques). Une de leurs caractéristiques communes est le lien fixe à l’employeur imposé aux travailleurs. Cette recherche analyse la conformité de cette disposition avec l’article 46 de la Charte québécoise qui garantit le droit à des conditions de travail justes et raisonnables. Un examen des effets du lien fixe démontre que celui-ci établit une dépendance forte des travailleurs envers leur employeur, aux niveaux légal (du fait de la possibilité du rapatriement anticipé en cas de problèmes liés au travail ou au comportement), financier (dû à la nomination des travailleurs année après année et au dépôt de sécurité imposé aux travailleurs guatémaltèques) et psychologique (soumission, crainte). L’interprétation de l’article 46 à la lumière du droit international des droits de la personne met en évidence la non conformité du lien fixe avec cette disposition. Or si l’objectif de cette mesure est de retenir la main-d’oeuvre dans le secteur agricole, il serait plus juste et raisonnable d’améliorer les conditions de travail de cette main-d’oeuvre plutôt que de l’asservir. / Each year the province of Quebec receives an increasing number of temporary farm workers through two programs: the Seasonal Agricultural Workers Program (mainly Mexican workers) and the Low-Skill Temporary Workers Program (with Guatemalan workers). These programs share a common characteristic: the workers’ permits are tied to an employer. This research analyses the compliance of the bonded-work permit with article 46 of the Quebec Charter, which guarantees the right to just and reasonable working conditions. An analysis of the effects of the work-tied permit shows that it creates a huge dependence of the workers vis-à-vis their employers – legally (due to the possibility of anticipated repatriation for work or behaviour related problems), financially (among other things because of the naming practise) and mentally (submission, fear). The interpretation of article 46 in light of international human rights law shows that tied-work permits violate that provision. If the objective of the bonded characteristic of the work permit is to retain a labour force, it would be much more just and reasonable to improve working conditions rather than to enslave workers.

The Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms drawn up in Rome on 4 November 1950, entered into force in September 1953, consolidated the minimal standarts of human rights protection which are equally binding for all democratic Europe countries. Article 6 guarantees the right to a fair trial – one of the favourable condition to realize human rights. It is the fundamental right and the guarantee of other human rights protection. The aim of the master thesis is to scrutinize the conception of the right to a fair trial under the Article 6 of the European Convention, its content and the practice of The European Court of Human Rights on this question. It is considering especially urgent questions of the Article‘s 6 application. On that ground the position of the Court is formed and the analysed regulations becomes the part of theory. The master thesis should create the basis for the further analysis of the Article 6 and promote the publication of the problem on human rights and safeguard them in Lithuania. In the Article 6 there is determined the right that everyone is entitled to a fair and public hearing within a reaonable time by an independent and impartial tribunal established by law. In the Convention sense the right to a fair trial is interpreted widely because of its significance in the democratic society. Otherwise the narrow interpretation of Article 6 would not answer the purpose. The right to a fair trial should be analysed as the whole... [to full text]

En 2007, le Premier ministre du Québec, monsieur Jean Charest, a établi la Commission de consultation sur les pratiques d’accommodement reliées aux différences culturelles afin de donner suite aux conflits émanant des différences ethniques et culturelles. La commission a pour mandat de dresser le bilan des pratiques d’accommodement au Québec, d’analyser la problématique, de consulter la population et de formuler des recommandations au gouvernement afin d’assurer la conformité des pratiques d’accommodement avec les valeurs de la société québécoise. En premier lieu, ce mémoire démontrera que deux facteurs, dont l’évolution de l’identité de la majorité francophone et l’évolution des pays d’origine des immigrants, ont contribué à un malaise de gestion de la diversité et, par conséquent, ont rendu l’établissement de la commission pertinent. En deuxième lieu, m’appuyant sur une revue de la méthodologie, des conclusions et des recommandations de la commission, ainsi que la réplique du Ministère de l’Immigration et des Communautés culturelles, je vais illustrer que, malgré un mandat pertinent et achevé, la réponse gouvernementale fut inadéquate. Finalement, je démontrerai que les modèles de gestion de diversité soutenus par le rapport de la Commission, la laïcité inclusive et l’interculturalisme, sont des aspects nécessaires de la gestion de la diversité. Cependant, ils en découlent des philosophies politiques de neutralisme et pluralisme dont la force et le compromis en sont les buts. Je crois que le Québec peut être meilleur gestionnaire de sa diversité et peut obtenir de vraies réconciliations en prônant la conversation; une approche patriotique de la gestion de diversité. / In 2007 and in response to conflicts stemming from ethnic and religious difference, Quebec Premier Jean Charest established the Consultation Commission on Accommodation Practices Related to Cultural Differences. The Commission’s mandate was to take stock of accommodation practices in Quebec, analyse the issues, consult the population and formulate recommendations to the government to ensure accommodation practices’ congruence with the values of Quebec society. This mémoire will first argue that two factors, namely the evolution of the francophone majority population’s identity and changes to immigrants’ origins, contributed to Quebec’s malaise with diversity management and thus made the establishment of the Commission relevant. Second, through a review of the Commission’s methods, findings, recommendations and the Ministry of Immigration and Cultural communities’ response to the recommendations, it will be argued that while the Commission’s mandate was both pertinent and fulfilled, the government’s response was inadequate. Finally, it will be argued that while open secularism and interculturalism, diversity management methods proffered by the Commission’s report, are necessary components of diversity management, they espouse the political philosophies of neutralism and pluralism which respectively result in force and compromise. I will argue that Quebec can manage difference more effectively and achieve true reconciliation by embracing conversation, a patriotic approach to diversity management.

This examination of the common law obligation of good faith in the performance and enforcement of commercial contracts in Australia seeks to achieve a number of objectives. First, to chart the historical development of the implied good faith obligation. Secondly, to identify a number of issues that remain unresolved at Australian lower court level. Thirdly, to consider five doctrinal approaches that could be adopted by the High Court when ultimately confronted by the competing claims and tensions that have proven divisive in the courts below. Fourthly, to assess each approach against three identified benchmarks. The essential thesis is that good faith should be implied, as a matter of law, in commercial contracts that are relational in nature with an additional call being made for the High Court to explicitly recognise that the underlying basis of the implied good faith obligation is the reasonable expectations of the contractual parties. This approach is the one approach that satisfies all three benchmarks and provides the most satisfactory resolution of the issues that presently bedevil the commercial good faith debate in Australia.

Notre thèse traite du thème : « Fondements philosophiques du projet d’un État mondial chez Éric Weil. » Il faut relever que l’idée d’un État mondial a effleuré l’esprit de beaucoup de penseurs avant et après Weil lui-même. Sans revenir en détails sur les idées cosmopolitiques qui ont été développées depuis les stoïciens jusqu’aux auteurs contemporains, on peut retenir que l’idée d’un État mondial a toujours visé un seul et unique but : instaurer une paix perpétuelle dans le monde. Ce qui fait la particularité et l’originalité de l’approche weilienne de cette question, c’est qu’elle centre la problématique de l’État mondial sur la question fondamentale de sa philosophie : le problème de la violence. Si le problème de la violence du langage a été thématisé et traité de façon systématique dans la Logique de la philosophie ; si le problème de la violence en l’homme a pu trouver sa solution dans la Philosophie morale; si la violence de la nature a pu trouver sa solution dans l’organisation rationnelle du travail social ; si la violence entre les individus à l’intérieur des États particuliers a pu trouver sa solution dans le cadre des États-nations, il restait à Weil de résoudre le problème non moins fondamental de la violence entre les États. C’est dans ce but qu’il a envisagé dans la troisième et dernière partie de la Philosophie politique la création d’un État mondial dont le but est « la satisfaction des individus raisonnables à l’intérieur d’États particuliers libres ». En confrontant la conception weilienne de l’État mondial avec celles de Maritain et de Kojève notamment, nous sommes arrivés à la conclusion que Weil a utilisé l’appellation « État mondial » pour désigner, une administration mondiale de la société mondiale du travail social. En somme, la conception weilienne de l’État mondial est pertinente et pleinement justifiée sur le plan philosophique, sur le plan de sa philosophie. Elle est philosophiquement justifiée parce qu’elle trouve ses fondements dans la Logique de la philosophie de Weil. Elle est pleinement justifiée, parce qu’elle permet de surmonter les obstacles comme le nationalisme, l’impérialisme, le conflit des cultures par l’idée de la promotion d’un État mondial pluraliste qui préserve la diversité des formes de vie. Elle est pleinement justifiée, parce qu’elle permet de surmonter l’obstacle du droit des nations à disposer d’elles-mêmes par la garantie de la souveraineté bien comprise des États particuliers dans le cadre de l’État mondial. Elle est pleinement justifiée, parce qu’elle vise à réaliser un monde sensé, à réaliser un monde de raison où vivrons des hommes libres, égaux et raisonnables. En un mot, la création de l’État mondial, telle que l’a envisagée Weil à la fin de la Philosophie politique, permet à l’humanité de se réconcilier avec elle-même. / Abstract Our thesis deals with the theme: “Philosophical foundations for a world state project by Éric Weil”. It should be mentioned that the idea of a world state has been explored by many thinkers before and after Weil. Without going into details about the cosmopolitan ideas that have been developed since the Stoicians to contemporary authors, it is to be noted that the idea of a world state has always aimed at single and unique objective: establishing everlasting world peace. The specificity and originality of Weil’s approach resides in his questioning the philosophy underlying the world state concept, that is, the issue of violence. If the problem of the violence of language has been thematized and systematically treated in the Logic of Philosophy. Even though man-inherent violence issue is solved by Moral philosophy, and nature-inherent violence is solved to rational organization of social labour, and violence among individuals dealt with within the framework of nation-states, the fundamental issue of inter-state violence remains unsolved. In the third and last part of his book, Political Philosophy, he suggests the creation of a world state whose aim is “the satisfaction of reasonable individuals within specific free states”Comparing the Weilian conception of the world state with that of Maritain and Kojeve leads to the conclusion that Weil used the term "world state" to designate a global administration of the world society’s social work. In short, the Weilian conception of the world state is philosophically relevant and fully justified. It is philosophically justified because it finds its foundations in the Logic of the philosophy of Weil. It is fully justified because it overcomes such obstacles as nationalism, imperialism, the conflict of cultures by the idea of promoting a pluralistic world state that preserves the diversity of life forms. It is fully justified because it overcomes the obstacle of the right of nations to self-determination by guaranteeing the sovereignty, well understood by sovereign States within the framework of the world state. It is fully justified, because it aims to realize a sensible world, a world of reason in which free, equal and reasonable men will live together. In short, the creation of the world state, as envisioned by Weil at the end of Political Philosophy, would enable mankind to reconcile with itself.

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