The aim of this study was to investigate how four third grade pupils, who are in need of extra support in their development in writing, and their teacher describe the conditions of the teaching organization when writing factual text. The empirical material consisted of transcripts of interviews with teacher and students, supported by field notes of observations and video observations. Constructively oriented interviews were conducted with an interview guide as support. The choice to carry out observations and video observation also gave an opportunity to study the teaching from different perspectives, and contributed to broader empirical material.   The results of the study show that the scaffolding that existed in the organization in various ways created opportunities for the pupils to write factual texts. Different examples of a varied and successful scaffolding in teaching are presented in the results section. The current teacher used several different artefacts in her teaching as well as collaborative activities like dialogues in full class, or between students, to support knowledge, acquisition on the subject, on subject specific concepts and on factual writing. One obstacle that emerged was that a pupil had difficulty writing the factual text despite the support that existed in the organization of the teaching.   The pupils also describe a varied support in teaching. They used different artefacts as support when they learned the facts on the subject and when writing the factual texts. According to the pupils’ statements more obstacles existed. One pupil had difficulties to write despite the support, one pupil felt that writing by hand was an obstacle, one pupil stressed that the weak interest for the subject as well as the “childish” material (the film) reduced the motivation to learn and two pupils also claimed external influences, like a noisy classroom, to be an obstacle to focusing on the writing task. / Syftet med denna studie var att undersöka hur fyra elever som är i behov av extra stöd i sin skrivutveckling och en lärare i årskurs 3 beskriver vilka förutsättningar som finns i undervisningen för att skriva en faktatext. Det empiriska materialet utgjordes av utskrifter från lärar- och elevintervjuer med stöd av fältanteckningar från observation och videoobservation. Konstruktivistiskt orienterade intervjuer utfördes med en intervjuguide som stöd. Valet att även genomföra observation och videoobservation gav en möjlighet att studera undervisningen utifrån olika perspektiv och bidrog till ett bredare empiriskt material.   Resultaten från studien visade att den stöttning som fanns i undervisningens organisation på många olika sätt skapade förutsättningar för eleverna att skriva en faktatext. Olika exempel på en varierad framgångsrik stöttning presenteras i resultatet. Läraren i studien använde flera olika artefakter som stöd i undervisningen och kollaborativa aktiviteter som samtal i helklass och mellan elever för att stötta kunskapsinhämtning om ämnet, ämnesbegrepp och skrivande av en faktatext. Ett hinder som framkom var att en elev hade svårt att skriva faktatexten trots stödet som fanns i undervisningens organisation.   Eleverna beskrev också ett varierat stöd i undervisningen. De använde olika artefakter som stöd när de skulle lära sig fakta om ämnet och när de skulle skriva faktatexten. Utifrån elevernas beskrivningar framkom fler hinder. En elev hade svårt att skriva trots stödet, en elev ansåg att skrivandet för hand hindrade honom, en elev tar upp att intresset för ämnet är lågt och densamme menar att materialet (filmen) är för ”barnsligt” vilka båda är faktorer som påverkar motivationen att lära och två elever lyfter även yttre påverkansfaktorer, som prat i klassrummet som ett hinder för att kunna koncentrera sig på skrivuppgiften.

L’ubiquité de la symbiose bactérienne, et sa présence à tous les niveaux de l’organisation biologique, bouleverse toute la science du vivant. Aujourd’hui, malgré le profond renouvellement de la biologie, de la médecine et de la philosophie de la biologie, il manque une approche de la relation symbiotique même, de son établissement et de son évolution. Au cours de ce travail, nous montrons que l’ubiquité de la symbiose et sa diversité rendent difficile la détermination d’un modèle particulier pour répondre à toute la complexité de la relation. Pour pallier cette difficulté, proposons de suivre un caractère particulier : le métabolisme syntrophique, solution évolutionnaire commune à toutes les symbioses et l’utilisons comme base de l’analyse. Par une approche évolutionnaire des mécanismes moléculaires et cellulaires, nous démontrons le caractère obligatoire de toute symbiose en établissant la dépendance des partenaires les uns aux autres. Le microbiote, formé des communautés bactériennes symbiotiques, est un organe évolutionnaire intégré fonctionnellement à l’organisme hôte. Les bactéries symbiotiques sont des agents d’homéostasie qui permettent aux organismes hôtes de s’adapter aux fluctuations des conditions environnementales. Cette fonction homéostatique est à l’origine d’une structuration réciproque entre les partenaires symbiotiques, donnant lieu à un holobionte avec une reproduction hybride et une héritabilité étendue. En analysant la symbiose intestinale bactérienne chez l’humain, nous établissons l’interaction codéveloppementale et coévolutionnaire des partenaires, et démontrons l’extension de la structuration réciproque métabolique vers une structuration cognitive qui passe par les systèmes immunitaire et neurologique chez les organismes supérieurs. En démontrant l’intrication du métabolisme avec l’information nous proposons une perspective informationnelle de la symbiose. L’échange d’informations significatives entre l’hôte et son microbiote définit l’organisation informationnelle du holobionte. / The pervasiveness of bacterial symbiosis and its omnipresence at every level of the biological organization deeply trouble life sciences. Today, despite biological, medical and philosophical renewal, a relational perspective analyzing the symbiotic relation, and the establishment and evolution of symbiosis is still lacking. In this work, we reveal difficulties to adopt an appropriate symbiosis model covering the complexity of the diverse and ubiquitous relation, and we propose to analyze the syntrophic metabolism as a common feature to all symbiosis. We apply an evolutionary approach to study molecular and cellular mechanisms, and we demonstrate the reciprocal dependency of symbiotic partners determining an obligatory symbiosis. The microbiota composed of symbiotic bacterial communities is an evolutionary homeostatic organ, functionally integrated in its host organism. Symbiotic bacteria are homeostatic agents that allow host organisms to adapt to fluctuations in environmental conditions. This homeostatic function enables the reciprocal scaffolding between symbiotic partners, resulting in a holobiont characterized by a hybrid reproduction and an extended inheritance. The analysis of bacterial symbiosis in human gut demonstrates the partner’s coevolutionary and codevelopmental interaction and determines the extension of the reciprocal metabolic scaffolding to a cognitive scaffolding based on immune and neurological systems in higher organisms. We demonstrate the entanglement of metabolism and information, and propose an informational perspective to define the symbiosis. This establishes an informational organization of the holobiont through the exchange of significant information between the host and its microbiota.

This paper researches the theoretical background needed for the implementation of literary texts with multicultural themes for use in EFL courses in Sweden and it offers several concrete didactical solutions for multicultural reading. The theory of multicultural education by J. A. Banks is presented with focus on the dimension of knowledge construction. The processes that are examined are the learning processes in the zone of proximal development by Vygotsky (1986), the concept of scaffolding by Woods, Bruner & Ross (1976) and the process of perspective-taking by Thein & Sloan (2013). These processes each employ a three-step sequence that moves students from their existing knowledge to new knowledge and revised personal opinions. The teacher’s role is to provide support during the learning process. The second part of the paper suggests different activities for the multicultural reading of a novel, used to make the process of multicultural knowledge construction and scaffolding visible. Teacher support includes text reduction, book discussion and language analysis. Discussion points found in Love Medicine start with revising the stereotypical images, discovering how personal experience influences knowledge or how ethnicity influences professional career choices. When teachers and students read literary texts with multicultural themes, students’ racial prejudice can be reduced (Banks 2004) and their ethical attitudes become more open (Thein & Sloan 2013). The literary work chosen for framing in the theory is Love Medicine by Louise Erdrich. The paper ends with a reflection over the limitations of multicultural reading projects.

Es gibt unterschiedliche Techniken, die Bedeutung eines unbekannten Wortes ohne Hilfeeines Wörterbuchs zu erschließen. In dieser Untersuchung wurden insbesondere vierTechniken beachtet und präsentiert: Worterschließung mit Hilfe des Zusammenhangs,durch Ähnlichkeit mit Wörtern aus anderen Sprachen, durch Ähnlichkeit mit deutschenWörtern und durch Teilung von komplexen Wörtern. Als weiterer Aspekt wird dieZusammenarbeit zwischen den Schülern untersucht, um herauszufinden, ob dies dieWorterschließung positiv oder negativ beeinflusst. An der Untersuchung nahmen elfSchüler teil, die in vier Gruppen eingeteilt wurden. Zusammen besprachen sieErschließungsmöglichkeiten unbekannter Wörter in einem Text. Die Analyse der Techniken zeigt, dass alle Vor- und Nachteile haben. Ofttragen die mangelhaften Vorkenntnisse oder die Aussprache, die nicht immer korrekt ist,zu falschen Worterschließungen bei. Die Analyse der Zusammenarbeit, die mithilfe derZPD-Theorie und des Scaffolding-Konzepts analysiert wird, zeigt, wenn die Kenntnisseeines einzelnen Schülers ungenügend sind, können die Schüler durch Gesprächemiteinander eine Worterschließung finden. Die Worterschließung ist jedoch nicht immerkorrekt, was an einer Reihe von Ursachen liegt. Beispielsweise wird die Zusammenarbeitbenachteiligt, wenn kein beiderseitiges Gespräch zwischen den Schülern entsteht. Einanderer sozial bedingter Faktor ist die Unsicherheit, die die Schüler über ihre Antwortenausdrücken. / Different techniques can make it possible to find out the meaning of an unfamiliar wordwithout using a dictionary. In this study four techniques were observed that are used inthese kind of situations: to find out the meaning of a word by using the context, bycomparing with words from other languages, by comparing with other German words andby dividing complex words. Another aspect is the cooperation between students and inwhat way this has a positive or negative influence on finding out the meaning of a word.Eleven students were divided into four groups, in which they talked about the possiblemeanings of the unfamiliar words they had found in a text. The results showed that the different techniques have advantages anddisadvantages. The pronunciation frequently contributes to the false meaning of a wordand also the inadequate previous knowledge. The results of the cooperation were analysed by using the ZPD Theory and the Scaffolding Concept. These analyses showed that whenstudents’ knowledge is inadequate they can together find out the meaning of a wordthrough conversation. The answer they come up with is however not always correct. Theresults were for instance negative when a one-sided conversation was held. Anothernegative factor was the insecurity which was expressed in the students’ answers.

The level of fluency in the genre specific language of schooling, also known as Academic English (AE), determines students’ success in school. Government agencies that legislate school policies therefore give teachers the directive to conduct education in ways that promote communicative abilities in academic English across all curricula. While the acquisition of an AE register entails hard work for native English-speaking students it presents an enormous challenge for English language learners (ELLs) who are faced with the triple burden of leaning basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS) in addition to content knowledge and academic English. Classroom practices, teachers’ training, and students’ cognitive abilities are predictive factors in the successful acquisition of academic English by ELLs. This literature review, which draws on cognitive theory in addition to systemic functional linguistics theory, contributes to the topic of how to most effectively teach AE to ELLs in English speaking classrooms. The results from seven peer reviewed research sources indicate that teaching practices differ depending on the nature of the subject, but that systemic learning theory, scaffolding, and contextual awareness are reoccurring elements. Furthermore, the results imply that there are challenges including that ELLs constitute a very heterogeneous student body with varying cognitive abilities that require a variety of teaching approaches. In addition educators’ attitudes, competences and training in teaching AE across all curricula pose a challenge to the quality of instruction. Further research on the topic could involve making actual classroom observations in addition to conducting teacher interviews in schools that have content and language integrated learning in Sweden to explore what instructional methods are used to teach AE in CLIL- education.

Abstract This study explores self-regulated learning (SRL) in the learning context of a primary school. The research focus is on the occurrence and promotion of SRL. The research is a qualitative case study. The theoretical foundation rests on research into SRL and its promotion. The research context was provided by the pedagogical development of the UBIKO project, which took place at the Oulu University Teacher Training School (Oulun normaalikoulu). The data consists of the structured diaries of students from grades 4 and 5 (N = 90) and the thematic interviews and descriptions of the learning context by their teachers (N = 6). The analysis, carried out to clarify the meaning of the learning context, was boosted by samples based on the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) questionnaire. The results indicate that pupils are aware of their learning and they exploit different learning strategies during their learning. The modification of the learning context has a different impact on the motivation and strategy use of strategically low and high pupils. SRL can be promoted by creating a learning context that supports pupils in their planning, monitoring and evaluation processes. In terms of school development it is not enough to concentrate on single supportive elements – the systemic development the learning context (i.e. learning situation, physical environment and social architecture) also needs to be considered. The findings of this study contribute to understanding the skills and promotion of SRL among primary school pupils. The results offer research-based support for teachers, teacher trainees and school developers to meet the challenges of 21st century education. / Tiivistelmä Väitöstutkimus tarkastelee oppimisen itsesäätelyä alakoulun oppimiskontekstissa. Tutkimuskohteina ovat oppimisen itsesäätelyn ilmeneminen sekä sen kehittymisen tukeminen. Tutkimus on laadullinen tapaustutkimus, jonka teoreettinen tausta on oppimisen itsesäätelyn ja sen kehittymisen tutkimuksessa. Tutkimuskontekstina toimi Oulun yliopiston harjoittelukoulussa (Oulun normaalikoulu) toteutunut UBIKO-kehittämishanke, jonka aikana tapahtuneeseen pedagogiseen kehittämiseen tutkimus kohdentuu. Tutkimusaineisto koostuu 4.–5.-luokkalaisilta oppilailta (N = 90) kerätyistä strukturoiduista päiväkirjoista sekä heidän opettajiensa (N = 6) oppimiskontekstia kuvaavista raporteista ja teemahaastatteluista. Lisäksi oppimiskontekstin merkityksen analyysia syvennettiin tarkastelemalla oppimisen itsesäätelyn ilmenemisen muutoksia Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (MSLQ) -kyselyn avulla oppilasjoukosta seulottujen otosten osalta. Tutkimustulokset osoittavat oppilaiden olevan tietoisia oppimiseensa liittyvistä tekijöistä, ja he hyödyntävät oppimisessaan erilaisia oppimisstrategioita. Tulosten perusteella oppimiskontekstissa tapahtuvat muutokset vaikuttavat eri tavoin strategisesti heikkojen ja vahvojen oppilaiden motivaatioon ja strategiseen toimintaan. Oppimisen itsesäätelyn kehittymistä voidaan tukea luomalla oppimiskontekstiin piirteitä, jotka vahvistavat oppilaiden oman toiminnan suunnittelua, tarkkailua ja arviointia. Koulun kehittämisen näkökulmasta yksittäisten elementtien lisäksi on huomioitava se systeeminen kokonaisuus, joka oppimistilanteen, fyysisen oppimisympäristön sekä sosiaalisen vuorovaikutuksen kautta oppimiskontekstiin muodostuu. Väitöstutkimuksen tulokset ja tutkimuskontekstin yksityiskohtainen esittely lisäävät ymmärrystä alakouluikäisten oppimisen itsesäätelytaidoista ja niiden kehittymisen tukemisesta. Tulokset auttavat opettajia, opettajankouluttajia ja muita koulun kehittäjiä vastaamaan tutkimusperustaisesti niihin vaatimuksiin, joita 2000-luvun koulutukselle on kansainvälisestikin asetettu.

Dans la littérature, relativement peu d’études ont porté sur les processus de rééducation en situation naturelle. La majorité des recherches ont été menées surtout comme une évaluation de l’efficacité de certaines méthodes d’intervention (e.g. méthode métalinguistique, guidance parentale) ou modes d’intervention (e.g. recast, imitation, modelage) sur l’acquisition d’une forme ou d’une structure linguistique ou de manière plus générale sur le développement de l’enfant. Or la compréhension des processus par lesquels les enfants se développent nécessite de travailler sur ce qui se passe pendant la rééducation sur le plan interactionnel et dans la façon dont émergent des pratiques orthophoniques dans l’interaction.L’objectif de notre étude est de comprendre la manière dont les interventions des orthophonistes soutiennent le développement langagier des enfants dysphasiques dans l’interaction. Cette étude s’inscrit dans une approche interactionniste en s’inspirant des travaux de Vygotski (1936/1997) et de Bruner (1983a).L’étude porte sur l’observation de quatre dyades orthophoniste-enfant dysphasique d’âge scolaire suivies lors de séances de rééducation pendant sept mois. Au début et à la fin de cette phase d’observation, une phase de test a été mise en place pour évaluer les compétences langagières des enfants et leur évolution. Les résultats montrent que les orthophonistes mettent en place des activités portant sur divers aspects du fonctionnement du langage. Leurs pratiques s’inscrivent dans la dynamique de l’échange et elles sont fortement influencées par les interventions des enfants et leurs difficultés à accomplir une tâche langagière. En outre, elles sont efficaces car elles permettent aux enfants de réaliser à deux ce qu’ils ne pouvaient accomplir seul. Nos analyses mettent en évidence des gestes professionnels communs aux orthophonistes relevant ainsi leur appartenance à une communauté de pratiques. / The literature reports relatively few studies that focused on Speech-Language pathologists’ (SLPs) interventions in natural context. Most of the studies explored the clinical effectiveness of intervention strategies with children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI) by assessing language outcomes (e.g. the acquisition of a particular form or structure, improvements on particular language measures) both studying particular features (e.g. recast, imitation, model, etc) or entire clinical methods and programs (e.g. metalinguistic approach, parental guidance, etc.). However, to better understand the processes underlying children’s development, it is necessary to analyse in detail what happens during SLP sessions at an interactional level and focus on the emergence of practices during Speech-language pathologist- child interactions. The aim of the present study was to better understand how clinical interventions support the language development of child with SLI during interactions. In line with Vygotski (1936/1997) or Bruner (1983a), we adopted a socio-interactionist approach/perspective.This study observed four school-aged children with SLI interacting with their SLP during clinical sessions. The dyads were followed-up for seven months. At the beginning and the end of the observation period, children’s linguistic, discursive and interactional abilities were assessed through standardized language tests and through the analysis of mother-child interactions.The results showed that SLPs enrolled the children in activities focusing on various aspects of language. Their practices were part of the dialogical dynamic and were strongly influenced by the accomplishment of the task (by children). In addition, the effectiveness of these practices was proven by the fact that children achieved, supported by the SLP, tasks that they were not able to accomplish by themselves. Our analyses also highlighted common professional gestures, such as discursive strategies, among all the SLP who participated in the study, showing that they belong to a community of practice.

The aim of the study is to investigate how multilingualism can be expressed in a classroom. With the aid of a qualitative approach applying the sociocultural perspective and with translanguaging as a theoretical framework, a fifth-grade class has been observed during three lessons in Swedish and mathematics. The class teacher was also asked to answer questions by email about how the pupils’ multilingualism was manifested in the classroom. The result shows that the teacher promotes the pupils’ opportunities for developing knowledge, language and identity by letting them translate words and summaries of texts from Swedish into their mother tongue. The pupils are helped by being allowed to use their multilingualism since they can help each other with words they do not understand and can carry on conversations with each other with no linguistic obstacles. By working in language groups, the pupils are allowed to converse with each other by switching between their languages and thereby creating further conditions for accomplishing the tasks with which they are presented.

The purpose of the study is to investigate what adaptations grade 4 teachers four make to language-develop in the social science classroom. This includes the challenges that may arise and support teachers they need in order to achieve anguage development goals. Using qualitative methods, in the form on interview and observation. Questions that will try to be answered are; 1. How the teachers take into account students language development in the teaching of fourth grade social sciences? 2. What are the difficulties with developing language in social science? 3.What support does the teachers consider necessary for conducting a language-developing social science education? Research has shown that language development education is contextual and is rich with opportunities for interaction. The teacher plays an important role in creatinga context that benefits students, knowledge, linguistic and personal development. However, research has also shown that many teachers lack the skills necessaryto work with language and knowledge developmentin their lessons. In this study, teachers take into account the parents' pre-knowledge and linguistic background while working with different methods based on interaction to develop the student's subject and language ability. The adaptation of different abilities was the biggest difficulty reported by most teachers. Interviewed teachers have also recognized the difficulty of developing students' school languages. According to teachers, collegial learning, language teaching and language development tools, the best basis for language education is education.

Magister Educationis - MEd / South Africa in the past-apartheid era has undergone a series of curriculum changes that collectively have not yet yielded the desired results. Evidence of this is to be found in the continued low pass rates and poor performance in the annual National Senior Certificate (Grade 12) examinations, including the subject English as a First Additional Language (EFAL). Apart from language policy considerations, reasons related to the teaching approach used in EFAL may have a bearing on the results.The Revised National Curriculum Statement (RNCS) recommends the use of a text-(genre) approach, alongside a communicative approach, to the teaching of languages in schools to replace the old content-based methods with their aims and objectives. While the old curriculum did advocate communicative language teaching, the addition is a text-based approach. This study focuses on investigating the various approaches teachers employ in the teaching of English writing and specifically seeks to identify the extent to which a text-based approach is realized in the teaching of EFAL in Grade 9 in two schools in the Western Cape. The study does so, amongst other ways, by analysing the various texts learners are exposed to in English lessons and taking note of how teachers introduce and negotiate the different stages of writing. This study uses genre theory and Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) in combination with social constructivist approaches to language learning. This theory is based on the premise that language is functional and cannot be detached from the social context of the learner.A qualitative research paradigm is used and the study is underpinned by interpretive theory.According to Richards (2003), qualitative research is the study of human action in its natural setting in the context of people’s daily lives. In this case the school classroom has to function as the natural setting. The qualitative data collection instruments for this study include interviews,(particularly open-ended interviews), classroom observation schedules and audio recordings. The teaching processes in the classroom and interview sessions are recorded.The research participants for this study were two qualified English teachers. Secondly, samples of notebooks including class exercises of a selected numbers of learners of English Language in Grade 9 were collected for analysis with regard to the implementation of a text-based approach.The findings revolve round the themes derived from the analysis chapter, and are expected to provide ways of promoting the teaching of English using this approach. They reveal that the teachers in this study do not have sufficient understanding of the theories that underpin the teaching of writing in the English FAL curriculum. They attend to the use of text-based approach superficially but they apply other teaching strategies in their lessons during the teaching of English as a first additional language. The study concludes by summing up the main findings,and by spelling out some implications for further research.