O sistema de medidas cautelares pessoais no processo penal brasileiro não mais gravita em torno da prisão preventiva, uma vez que o legislador instituiu um rol de medidas cautelares menos gravosas, a ela alternativas. Nesse contexto, como deve orientar-se a escolha judicial da medida a ser aplicada ao caso concreto? A constitucional idade de qualquer intervenção no direito fundamental de liberdade depende, essencialmente, de sua fundamentação constitucional, que é controlada a partir da proporcionalidade. A proporcional idade, portanto, é a pedra angular do sistema de medidas cautelares pessoais. A decisão que impõe uma medida cautelar pessoal jamais pode resultar de uma intuição individual misteriosa, senão de um procedimento cognoscitivo estruturado e comprovável de maneira intersubjetiva. Daí a importância da investigação da existência de um direito fundamental do imputado à individualização da medida cautelar pessoal, para afastar qualquer discricionariedade judicial na sua escolha. O objetivo do presente trabalho, portanto, é propor um método racional, baseado no exame da proporcionalidade, para controle intersubjetivo da justificação da decisão judicial que, no processo penal, imponha uma medida cautelar pessoal. / The system of personal precautionary measures in Brazilian criminal procedure no longer revolves around preventive incarceration, as the legislature has established a listo f less restrictive precautionary measures, as alternatives. In this context, how should the judicial choice of the measure to be applied to cases be directed? The constitutionality of any intervention on the fundamental right of freedom essentially depends upon its constitutional foundation, wich is controlled by its proportionality. Proportionality, therefore, is the corner stone of the system of personal precautionary measures. The decision to impose a personal precautionary measure can never be a result of mysterious individual intuition, but rather be based upon a structured and verifiable cognitive procedure, in an intersubjective manner. Hence the importance of researching the existence of a fundamenta right of the accused to the individualization of personal precautionary measures, to rule out any judicial discretion in their determination. The objective of this paper, therefore, is to propose a rational method, based upon an examination of proportionality, for intersubjective control of the judicial decision justification process that, in criminal procedure, imposes a personal precautionary measure.

O conceito da discricionariedade, quando aplicado na compreensão do sistema de justiça criminal e das instituições nele inseridas, tem produzido grande quantidade de debates acadêmicos e institucionais. Em geral, tal ideia é reconhecida enquanto um elemento de tensão no âmbito dos processos de aplicação da lei no moderno Estado Democrático de Direito. Ela tem sido usada, mais especificamente, para designar momentos em que há alguma ruptura ou ruído nos procedimentos racionais e formais do sistema de justiça. Apesar desse sentido mais geral do termo, não é possível obter nas literaturas especializadas, em especial das ciências sociais e das ciências jurídicas, definições precisas, muito menos consensuais, para essa ideia. Notavelmente, foi nos países de língua inglesa em que esse debate alcançou maiores nuances. Ali, a discricionariedade ora foi considerada um aspecto inerente da forma de se aplicar a lei, podendo produzir justiça ou injustiça. Ora foi entendida como um resquício de formas pré-modernas de administração da justiça, sendo necessária eliminá-la. Ainda, foi definida como um conceito a ser descartado, seja por não conseguir delimitar precisamente o fenômeno que procura descrever, ou por tentar definir algo que na verdade se encontra em outro nível de análise. Já no Brasil não é possível falar em termos de um debate sobre o conceito da discricionariedade, pois aqui vem se adotando diferentes conceitos para descrever os fenômenos geralmente enquadrados por essa ideia, como arbitrariedade e seletividade. Os objetivos dessa pesquisa, portanto, são realizar uma síntese bibliográfica crítica dos debates nesses dois conjuntos de literatura, subdivididos, por sua vez, de acordo com a matriz disciplinar de cada pesquisa; estabelecer os pontos de contato e de separação entre cada uma delas; e, por fim, indicar os temas que se abrem a partir disso para a melhor compreensão do sistema de justiça criminal brasileiro. Assim, verifica-se, em maior grau, distanciamentos entre os dois grandes grupos de pesquisas em função sobretudo da configuração específica do sistema de justiça brasileiro, baseado na civil law, e de sua doutrina, em comparação com o sistema da common law. Mesmo assim, também se argumenta que a incorporação da gramática da discricionariedade, conforme delineada aqui, pode ser produtiva para o avanço da compreensão do sistema de justiça brasileiro. Por fim, indica-se o Ministério Público enquanto objeto privilegiado para a realização dessa tarefa, pois nessa instituição se expressam mais nitidamente as tensões identificadas em ambas literaturas, tanto na sua constituição organizacional, quanto na sua configuração doutrinária. Além disso, afirma-se também que o Ministério Público tem sido palco de um movimento de aproximação com seu correlato da common law, o que torna ainda mais produtiva a adoção da gramática da discricionariedade para sua análise. / Discretion is a key concept to understand the criminal justice system and its institutions. It is also the focus of a large number of academic and institutional controversies. This phenomenon is generally acknowledged as a source of tension to the processes of law enforcement associated with the democratic state governed by the rule of law. More precisely, discretion has been used to describe defective aspects of justices rational and formal procedures. Despite this general statement, social sciences and law studies are far from asserting an unequivocal definition of discretion. If one looks through researches published in English, he will find numerous differences. Discretion is sometimes described as an intrinsic feature of law enforcement that can equally provide fair or unfair consequences. It is also sometimes described as a residual feature of pre-modern administration of justice that has to be suppressed. Finally, some researches argues that discretion is a concept that must not be used since it cannot precisely describe a single phenomenon. Or because it attempts to describe something that simply do not belong to its level of analysis. Yet, Brazilian researches provide a different scenario. Discretion it is not as often used as in the previous case. The phenomena frequently understood as discretion is more commonly described by concepts such as arbitrariness or selectivity. Henceforth, the objectives of this research are: provide a research synthesis of this controversial field; compare the Brazilian literature to the English literature by means of a critical approach; and, at last, point out the questions arose by such comparison and that can be helpfully used to interrogate Brazilian justice system. Therefore, it will be argued that the different comprehensions found between Brazilian and English studies are due to the specific development and configuration of their justice system, each one being based upon different traditions (common law or civil law). However, it will also be argued that the adoption of the grammar of discretion by Brazilian researchers may result in the advance of the comprehension of its justice system. Finally, it will be pointed out that the Ministério Público (Brazils public prosecutors office) is a key institution at which discretion framework can be usefully applied. Especially because this institution clearly express the controversies and tensions previously identified in its organizational and doctrinaire constitution. Finally, it will be argued that the Ministério Público is also at the center of a movement towards its approximation with the common law prosecutors office.

L'usage de la discrétion peut intervenir à plusieurs étapes de la commande publique. La littérature économique s'est largement penchée sur l'étude des bénéfices et des limites de son usage. Cette thèse se concentre sur deux dimensions de la discrétion. Tout d'abord, une autorité publique doit choisir entre fournir un service public elle-même (une régie) ou par voie de délégation de service public (DSP). Cette thèse détermine empiriquement quels sont les facteurs décisifs des remunicipalisations et privatisations dans le service public de la distribution d'eau. Cette décision s'explique principalement par la recherche d'efficacité économique, même si la tendance des communes voisines à changer de mode de fourniture est décisive. Ensuite, cette thèse se concentre sur le pouvoir discrétionnaire d'un acheteur public lorsque celui-ci doit attribuer un marché public. La littérature reconnait qu'elle peut permettre d'obtenir un meilleur rapport qualité-prix, mais peut aussi faciliter la corruption. Cette thèse analyse l'effet des enquêtes pour faits de corruption sur le degré de pouvoir discrétionnaire utilisé pour attribuer un marché. Il apparaît qu'une municipalité sous enquête ne réagit pas en adoptant moins de pouvoir discrétionnaire. Seuls les voisins à des communes qui sont reconnues coupables de corruption réagissent, suggérant leur possible implication dans le cas enquêté. Enfin, la question de l'effet du pouvoir discrétionnaire sur la probabilité d'attribuer le marché à une entreprise plus productive est soulevée. Il en résulte qu'une procédure d'attribution offrant un pouvoir discrétionnaire à l'acheteur public conduit à la sélection d' entreprises moins efficaces. / The use of discretion in public procurement may take place at different stages of the procurement process. The economic literature has widely investigated the benefits and limitations of its use. This dissertation focuses on two dimensions of discretion. First, a public authority has to decide whether to provide a public service in-house or privately. This dissertation empirically investigates the determinants of both remunicipalizations and privatizations for the water distribution services. This decision to switch appears to be mainly driven by economic efficiency reasons. Also, a tendency to switch from one regime to another one in neighboring municipalities influences this decision. Second, this dissertation focuses on public buyer's discretionary power towards the award mechanism. The economic literature acknowledges that even though discretion may yield a better value for money when awarding a contract, it may also facilitate corruption. This dissertation analyzes the impact of investigation for corruption over the degree of buyer's discretion used. As a matter of fact, a municipality investigated for corruption does not react by using less award procedures that allow for discretionary power. Only neighbors of municipalities that are eventually found guilty react, suggesting that responsive neighbors to investigation might also be involved in the case under investigation. Finally, the question of the effect of discretionary power over the likelihood to select a productive supplier is addressed. It follows that an award procedure that allows for discretionary power leads to the selection of less productive firms than an award procedure that does not.

Public opinion polls have shown the public lacks confidence in U.S. police to use appropriate amounts of force and treat racial minorities fairly, which undermines police legitimacy and the quality of life of all citizens. Although rules have been shown to positively constrain police uses of force, researchers have not demonstrated the effect of rules on racially influenced policing (RIP). In 2005, the RIP directive which prohibits officers from using race as a factor in taking discretionary actions was promulgated in New Jersey. The purpose of this study was to determine through the theoretical lens of Lipsky's street-level bureaucrat theory the influence of the RIP directive on municipal police officer uses of force upon non-Whites. A quantitative nonexperimental retrospective design was used to examine a stratified, proportionate random sample of 301 use of force reporting forms from municipal police agencies in one New Jersey county for a 5-year period before and after the enactment of the RIP directive. A binomial logistic regression indicated that the RIP directive had no influence on the use of force upon non-Whites. Suspect race did not significantly influence force outcomes. Scholarly implications include producing research based upon existing policy to better help inform evidence-based policymaking. Policy implications include police practitioners and policymakers actively monitoring officer uses of force for racial bias and broadening their examination to other issues affecting the problem of trust. Implications for social change include framing the problem within the public policy paradigm to promote political discourse, evidence-based decision making, and improved civilian oversight of the police, which could strengthen trust and police legitimacy.

中共一貫自詡其法律體系乃屬於「社會主義法制」，就刑法領域而言即具 有獨特之立法體例，如此的刑法規範復加上其特殊刑事司法制度，不難預 見其刑事裁判之「特殊性」。量刑本為刑罰學上之重要課題，向為法治國 家刑事實務工作中一相當重要卻又不易解決的難題。刑罰之裁量雖為刑法 就犯罪行為科處刑罰之相關規定的具體表現，然影響量刑結果之因素尚非 限於刑事法律之規定、審判人員本身等因素，即法院制度、審判人員之產 生管道、審判原則乃至於整個司法體系亦然，特別是就中共而言，實體規 定外之因素似更具意義，往往即係左右量刑結果之癥結所在，應予重視。 於大陸法系國家，法官之量刑雖被視為「自由裁量」之範疇，然實際上卻 非漫無標準，可任法官恣意而為，是以刑法學上乃有「量刑基準」之概念 ，如我國刑法第57，58條即係關於法官量刑基準之規定。中共雖自稱其為 社會主義法制，然究其實則仍屬成文立法，因之探討中共刑事司法上之量 刑活動即具實義。然而，除分析其刑法上有關法定裁量事實之規定（刑法 第57條）外，亦須探討中共審判人員產生之管道，如何任免及其於審判活 動中之角色扮演、地位與權限，以明瞭中共所謂「獨立審判」原則之實質 意涵。此外，由中共人大常委會、最高人民法院、司法部、 公安部等機 關發佈之「通知」、「法定」、「批覆」等所謂規範性文件，通常即具有 特別法之效力，當即影響審判人員之量刑，是其刑事司法上之特點。當然 ，中共刑法第79條關於「類推適用」之規定，亦足以影響定罪量刑之結果 。以上各點，均係探討中共量刑活動時所須注意之要項。

The focus of this thesis is on social workers’ role in assessing and making decisions in child welfare cases. The primary aim is to identify factors that influence decisions concerning reports assessed, investigated, dismissed or processed to intervention within child welfare agencies in Swedish municipalities. Social policy, professional and organisational factors are perspectives considered in the analysis. All reports and requests for support for children and adolescents in the 0–19 age group were collected during two months in two local agencies, in 2003 (n= 260) and followed by interviews with social workers. Factors connected to social workers’ assessments at different stages in the process were tested in regression models and grounds for their assessments explored. Main results: two-thirds of reports are sorted out without investigation. One-fifth led to interventions. The highest probability for a report to be investigated was if it was assessed as acute, concerned abuse, came from a professional (not the police) concerned a girl and handled in the integrated agency. The most common problems, such as family conflicts and antisocial behaviour were investigated the least. A majority of the children came from underprivileged families, mainly poor single mothers. The process draws the pattern of a heavily tapered funnel with few interventions at the end. Children are not in focus and the attitude is to keep them out of the system for their own good. Social policy and organisational factors restrict social workers’ discretion. Contradictory demands are solved by a ‘consensual ideology’. Parallel tracks appear on risks in a narrow perspective and on voluntary counselling mainly directed to mothers. This forms child welfare into a rejecting practice, where hard social conditions are individualized. Legislation gives municipalities considerable leeway to produce a variety of services and interventions, but practice works on the basis of another kind of rationality.

Title: [Frontline bureaucrats discretion in the transition to Establishment Reform]This essay aims to study discretion among frontline bureaucrats as an important factor in the integration of immigrants. In contrast to other studies of discretion this essays has its focus on a new establishment reform that has been recently legislated. The theoretical frame is based on the concept of frontline bureaucracy developed by M. Lipsky (2010). In the analysis of the discretion in this specific area I have been inspired by I. Schierenbecks (2003) comparative study based on three different relationships a frontline bureaucrat has to take into account: regulations, the dual role and a relationship to the immigrant client. I have used a qualitative approach where I interviewed workers in two different employment exchange offices in the country. The results show that there is an opportunity to adapt the law to individual needs which meets the criteria for an extensible and flexible framework. All frontline bureaucrats find the dual role as debilitating where they feel torn between the organization's goals and the applicant's needs. When these needs conflict, the majority chooses to follow the employment services directives. Frontline bureaucrats in the study are sharing a disposal, problem- solving approach towards the immigrant clients. There is a perception among frontline bureaucrats on new immigrant clients as carriers of specific cultural characteristics, however, there is nothing saying that these perceptions affect the exercise of authority. This study expands further through the dimension of newcomers' opportunities in achieving active citizenship. In the essay I discuss the usage of discretion among workers at the employment exchange office and the new establishment reform as two factors playing a significant role in the activation of active citizenship for the new immigrants as well as in the integration of the same.

This study regards the Swedish documentation system, BBiC, which is translated from the English version LACS. BBiC is created to make sure that the children’s needs are put in centre of attention in child protection investigations. The BBiC-system becomes problematic regarding unaccompanied refugee children because of the parent-perspective which is a keystone in the system. Therefor BBiC creates discretion for the social worker which is not BBiC: s original intension. The study’s aim was to understand how BBiC: s creates discretion for the social worker that works with unaccompanied refugee children. In the results of the study we show that the social workers discretion expands when using BBiC in the work with unaccompanied refugee children. Because of the lack of guidelines from Socialstyrelsen, BBiC is used differently in different municipalities. The social workers sees BBiC in different ways, some see BBiC as a complete system and has adapted BBiC well to the work with unaccompanied refugee children and therefore the discretion increases. Some has only adapted BBiC as a way of thinking and still has a large discretion. We use Lipskys theory about street-level bureaucracy and discretion. We selected the theory and its concept because it is relevant to analyze how BBiC has created discretion for the social workers that work with unaccompanied refugee children. With a large discretion there is also a risk of injustice safety for the unaccompanied refugee child. Therefor the legitimacy of municipality can be questioned. We preformed semi-structured interviews in eight municipalities in southern Sweden and had twelve interviewees. We have also done literary studies regarding Socialstyrelsens reports about BBiC and the research that concerning the implementation of BBiC.

In British Columbia (BC) foresters registered with the Association of BC Forest Professionals (ABCFP) have been given the exclusive right to practise professional forestry. As with all professions there is an expectation that Registered Professional Foresters (RPFs) conduct their activities in an ethical manner and are therefore obligated to act as an ethical agent on behalf of society regarding forest resources. If a certain level of ethical agency is desired of professionals we need to understand whether or not an RPF possesses the ability (defined as their discretion) to sufficiently fulfil this responsibility. Rule-based and principle-based standards of forest management, an RPF’s scope of practice, and the socio-political framework of public forest management in BC all come together to define an RPF’s discretionary context, which sets the limits to an RPF’s discretion. This context is highly idiosyncratic to a specific situation or decision and this makes the RPF’s discretion similarly idiosyncratic. This suggests that an RPF should not be accountable for a standard of ethical agency that does not reflect the context-dependent level of discretion they possess. Fifteen interviews of RPFs were conducted for this study to discuss their approach to ethical decision making. The analysis of the interviews revealed 12 major themes, several of which appear to be highly idiosyncratic to the situations described by the participants. The way these themes were perceived by the participants revealed the differences in the discretionary context of their situations. Several aspects of ethical deliberation emerged from the data that appear to be particular to broad employer categories, including delegated decision-making (government), economic and forest health considerations (industry), and the tension between personal and professional values (consultants).

Miljöbalken är en svensk ramlag som syftar till att skydda människors hälsa och miljön på ett hållbart sätt, men i och med att balken är en ramlag kanden också ge upphov till tolkning. Förordningar och föreskrifter tillsätts för att tydliggöra miljöbalkens regler och minska detta tolkningsutrymme. Enyrkesverksam grupp som i sitt dagliga arbete kommer i kontakt med miljöbalken är miljö- och hälsoskyddsinspektörer. Denna kvalitativa intervjustudiesyftar till att undersöka hur inspektörers arbete och upplevelse av tolkningsutrymmet har förändrats sedan miljötillsynsförordning 2011:13 trädde ikraft, då förordningens syfte är att tydliggöra ansvarsfördelningen av kemikalietillsynen. Inspektörernas upplevelser av tolkningsutrymmet analyserasmed hjälp av Michael Lipskys teori om närbyråkrati. Studien visar på att majoriteten av miljö- och hälsoskyddsinspektörerna upplever ett tolkningsutrymme i miljöbalken, och att inspektörerna kandefinieras som närbyråkrater då de har ett stort inflytande på hur lagen implementeras. Resultatet visar även att det inte har skett någon förändring iinspektörernas arbete sedan miljötillsynsförordning 2011:13 trädde i kraft, vilket kan bero på en tröghet i implementeringsprocessen.