Syftet med detta självständiga arbete är att bidra med mer kunskap om hur grundskoleelever i musikklass med körprofil i Sverige uppfattar fenomenet notläsning. I bakgrundskapitlet presenteras en kort historik över notskriftens historia, en redogörelse för musikklassen som fenomen samt definitioner av termer som används i detta arbete. Den tidigare forskningen fokuserar på fenomenet notläsning utifrån de särskilda utmaningar som sångare möter jämfört med instrumentalister. Det teoretiska perspektivet fenomenografi ligger till grund för arbetet. Genom halvstrukturerade kvalitativa intervjuer med sjutton elever i årskurs åtta från en musikklass med körprofiol har empiriskt material samlats in vilket sedan analyserats med en fenomenografisk dataanalys. Enligt studiens resultat uppfattar eleverna fenomenet notläsning på sex kvalitativt skilda sätt: som ett verktyg för att tillägna sig musik genom att avkoda ett intervall mellan två toner, som ett verktyg för att distribuera och bevara musik över historiska avstånd, som ett verktyg för självständighet och variation i tolkning och framförande utifrån en noterad förlaga, som ett verktyg som möjliggör högre arbetstakt i musikundervisningen, som ett verktyg för överblick i en i övrigt gehörsbaserad personlig inlärningsstrategi, samt som en hämmande faktor för samspel, sångteknik och självförtroende i framförandet av körmusik. Resultatet jämförs med tidigare forskning och möjliga pedagogiska implikationer presenteras. / The purpose of this study is to contribute with more knowledge about how students in a high school music class with choir profile perceive the phenomenon of reading music. In the background chapter, a short account of the history of musical notation is presented, an account of the phenomenon of a music class with choir orientation as the term is used in this study, as well as definitions of terms that are used in this study. The prior research focuses on the phenomenon of reading music from the perspective of the special difficulties that singers experience in comparison to instrumentalists. The theoretical perspective of phenomenography is the basis for the study. Through semi-structured qualitative interviews with seventeen students in eighth grade from a music class with choir profile, empirical data has been collected which has then been analyzed with a phenomenographical analysis. According to the study the students perceive the phenomenon of reading music in six qualitatively different ways: As a tool for learning music by decoding an interval between two notes, as a tool for distributing and preserving music across historical distances, as a tool for independence and variation in interpretation and performance based on a notated source material, as a tool that makes possible a higher work rate in music lessons, as a tool for overview in an otherwise ear-based personal learning strategy, as well as an impeding factor for interplay, singing technique and confidence in the performance of choir music. The results are compared to prior research, and possible pedagogical implications are presented.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde mit einer Reihe von Experimenten geprüft, ob sich die Tonarterinnerung von Nichtabsoluthörern durch aus der Gedächtnisforschung abgeleitete Einflussfaktoren erklären lässt. Zunächst erfolgte eine theoretische Betrachtung des Tonartgedächtnisses sowohl aus musikpsychologischer als auch aus gedächtnispsychologischer Perspektive. Die Analyse von Befunden zum „latenten“ und „echten“ absoluten Gehör zeigte, dass eine Reihe von potenziellen Einflussfaktoren auf die Tonarterinnerung betrachtet werden muss, um herauszufinden, ob es sich bei diesen beiden Phänomenen um unterschiedliche Ausprägungen derselben Fähigkeit handelt. Um den Einfluss von Faktoren der Melodien, der Melodie-Lernenden und der Art des Melodie-Lernens auf die Tonarterinnerung zu prüfen, wurden insgesamt 268 Probanden gebeten, vertraute Melodien aus dem Gedächtnis zu singen. Unabhängige Variablen waren die musikalische Expertise der Probanden, ihre Fähigkeit Töne zu benennen, die Form und die Intensität des dem Experiment vorangegangenen Melodie-Lernens sowie verschiedene Charakteristika der Melodien. Abhängige Variable war die Genauigkeit, mit der die Originaltonarten der Melodien produziert wurden. Es konnten Effekte der Hör-Häufigkeit, der musikalischen Expertise, der Tonbenennung, der Melodie-Eingängigkeit sowie ein Effekt motorischer Kontextinformationen auf die Genauigkeit der Tonarterinnerung nachgewiesen werden. Um den Häufigkeitseffekt mit einer weiteren Anforderung zu untersuchen, wurde in einem weiteren Experiment die Tonbenennungsleistung von Absoluthörern und Nichtabsoluthörern verglichen. Dabei kam die Methode der Pupillometrie zum Einsatz, um Unterschiede in der mentalen Beanspruchung beim Benennen von Tönen unterschiedlicher Klangfarbe und Tonklasse nachweisen zu können. Die Ergebnisse stützen die Annahme, dass das häufige Hören bestimmter Töne sowohl bei Absoluthörern als auch bei Nichtabsoluthörern die Tonbenennung erleichtert. Dies verweist darauf, dass auch bei der musikspezifischen Aufgabe der Tonbenennung ein so grundlegendes Prinzip des menschlichen Gedächtnisses wie die Stabilisierung von Gedächtnisinhalten durch Wiederholung zum Tragen kommt. Insgesamt weisen die Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass Tonarterinnerung ein komplexes Phänomen ist, für das eine alleinige Erklärung als „latentes absolutes Gehör“ zu kurz greift. Statt einer schwachen Ausprägung einer hochspezialisierten Fähigkeit scheint es sich eher um eine eigene Form des Erinnerns, die auf allgemeingültigen Gedächtnisprinzipien beruht, zu handeln. / In this thesis, memory for musical keys among absolute pitch nonpossessors, which is often referred to as “latent” absolute pitch, is examined. A theoretical analysis focused on existing research about “latent” and “manifest” absolute pitch. Evidence from music-psychological and general memory research as well as neuropsychological evidence was considered. The review of existing research revealed that several factors are potentially relevant for the memory of musical keys and should be considered in trying to determine whether “latent” and “manifest” absolute pitch can be described as different levels of the same ability on an “absolute pitch continuum”. To examine whether characteristics of learned melodies, of melody-learners, and of melody-learning influence memory for musical keys among absolute pitch nonpossessors, 268 participants were asked in a series of experiments to sing familiar melodies from memory. Independent variables were the musical expertise of participants, their ability to label pitches, type and intensity of melody-learning, and characteristics of the learned melodies. The accuracy with which learned melodies could be produced in the original key was the dependent variable. Results revealed that frequency of melody-learning as well as participants’ musical expertise and ability to label pitches influence the accuracy of key production. Whether or not a melody is catchy as well as the existence of different types of motor imagery are further influencing factors for the accuracy of key production. To examine the frequency-of-hearing effect in more detail, another experiment compared the pitch labeling performance of absolute pitch possessors and nonpossessors. Pupillary responses were measured in order to show differences in mental resource allocation when labeling pitches of different key colors or timbres. Results support the assumption that frequent exposure to pitches of certain key colors or timbres facilitate their labeling among both absolute pitch possessors and nonpossessors. This suggests that basic principles of human memory such as learning by frequency of exposure affect also very specific tasks such as pitch labeling. Taken together, the results suggest that memory for musical keys is a complex phenomenon which can not adequately be described as being simply a “latent” or weak form of absolute pitch. Instead, memory for musical keys can be described as a “normal” memory mechanism, influenced by factors known to influence numerous other forms of human memory.

Felix Saul (1883-1942) var verksam som körledare, musikskribent och musikpedagog, och undervisade främst i sin egen musikskola, Stockholms privata konservatorium (SPK). Syftet med studien är att undersöka den pedagogik som Felix Saul tillämpade i sin musikundervisning i barngrupper på SPK. Empirin utgörs av intervjuer med Sauls tidigare elever, och av hans egna artikelserier om musikpedagogik. Materialet har analyserats utifrån ett övergripande kulturpsykologiskt perspektiv. Resultatet visar att Sauls undervisning som syftade till att utveckla elevernas musikalitet i stor utsträckning följde Tonika-do-metoden som den beskrivs av samtida litteratur, men att han lade större vikt vid ackordfunktioner och rytmikövningar, och att lek var en central del av undervisningen. Genom undervisningen fick eleverna tillgång till en omfångsrik verktygslåda med kulturella verktyg i form av konventioner att strukturera, uttrycka och representera musik, som de i fortsatt lärande kunde kombinera till individuella strategier för notläsning, interpretation och i musiklyssnande. Av studien har också framkommit att Saul var en betydelsefull musikpedagog trots att han inte fullt ut var accepterad av etablissemanget. / Felix Saul (1883-1942) was engaged as a choiremaster, music writer and music teacher, mainly at his own music school: Stockholms privata konservatorium (SPK). The purpose of this study is to describe how Felix Saul tought children's groups at SPK, and what pedagogy he employed. The empirical material consists of interviews with students who participated in Saul's children's groups and Saul's own series of articles about his music pedagogy. The material has been analyzed from a cultural psychological perspective. The result show that the teaching methods used by Saul to a large extent followed the Tonika-do method as it was described in the contemporary literature, but with a bigger emphasis on harmonic theory and eurhythmics, and that playing games was a central part of the educational activities. The education gave the students access to cultural tool-box a variety of tools in the form of established music-cultural conventions of structuring, expressing and representing music, that they could combine to create individual learning strategies for sight reading, interpretation as well as listening to music. In this study Saul has emerged as an influential music educator even though he was not fully accepted by the establishment.

Disgust causes specific reaction patterns, observable in mimic responses and body reactions. Most research on disgust deals with visual stimuli. However, pictures may cause another disgust experience than sounds, odors, or tactile stimuli. Therefore, disgust experience evoked by four different sensory channels was compared. A total of 119 participants received 3 different disgusting and one control stimulus, each presented through the visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory channel. Ratings of evoked disgust as well as responses of the autonomic nervous system (heart rate, skin conductance level, systolic blood pressure) were recorded and the effect of stimulus labeling and of repeated presentation was analyzed. Ratings suggested that disgust could be evoked through all senses; they were highest for visual stimuli. However, autonomic reaction toward disgusting stimuli differed according to the channel of presentation. In contrast to the other, olfactory disgust stimuli provoked a strong decrease of systolic blood pressure. Additionally, labeling enhanced disgust ratings and autonomic reaction for olfactory and tactile, but not for visual and auditory stimuli. Repeated presentation indicated that participant's disgust rating diminishes to all but olfactory disgust stimuli. Taken together we argue that the sensory channel through which a disgust reaction is evoked matters.

Disgust causes specific reaction patterns, observable in mimic responses and body reactions. Most research on disgust deals with visual stimuli. However, pictures may cause another disgust experience than sounds, odors, or tactile stimuli. Therefore, disgust experience evoked by four different sensory channels was compared. A total of 119 participants received 3 different disgusting and one control stimulus, each presented through the visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory channel. Ratings of evoked disgust as well as responses of the autonomic nervous system (heart rate, skin conductance level, systolic blood pressure) were recorded and the effect of stimulus labeling and of repeated presentation was analyzed. Ratings suggested that disgust could be evoked through all senses; they were highest for visual stimuli. However, autonomic reaction toward disgusting stimuli differed according to the channel of presentation. In contrast to the other, olfactory disgust stimuli provoked a strong decrease of systolic blood pressure. Additionally, labeling enhanced disgust ratings and autonomic reaction for olfactory and tactile, but not for visual and auditory stimuli. Repeated presentation indicated that participant's disgust rating diminishes to all but olfactory disgust stimuli. Taken together we argue that the sensory channel through which a disgust reaction is evoked matters.

Syftet med denna studie är att synliggöra hur lärare undervisar i folkmusik. Studien tar både upp förhållningssätt till den gehörstradition som folkmusik bygger på, hur utbildningen har påverkat musiken och vilka konkreta metoder lärare använder i sin undervisning. Bakgrundslitteraturen sätter folkmusik och undervisning i ett historiskt perspektiv och den tidigare forskningen tar upp begrepp som metodik, institutionalisering, gehör och tyst kunskap. Arbetet studeras utifrån ett sociokulturellt perspektiv. För att samla in material till studien har semistrukturerade intervjuer använts och dessa har sedan analyserats tematiskt. I resultatet presenteras lärarnas metodiska tankesätt kring genrespecifika övningar som antingen har utformats på egen hand, utifrån låtar eller utifrån existerande material som har anpassats till genren. Vidare framkommer tankar kring tyst kunskap i en gehörstradition och hur detta ses i relation till utbildning. En folkmusikmetodik som är på väg att formas och utvecklas genom att folkmusiken har tagit plats i utbildningsmiljön är något som diskuteras av respondenterna. Diskussionen tar upp hur nya redskap för lärande utvecklas när musiken hamnar i nya kontexter och vilka redskap lärare tycker är viktiga för lärandet av fiol och folkmusik. / The main goal of this study is to examine the methodology in the teaching of fiddle, used by teachers in traditional music. The study examines the approaches to the tradition of learning music by ear which is central to the teaching of traditional music, how education has affected music and which methods teachers use in their tuition. The background literature sets traditional music and teaching traditional music in a historical perspective. Previous research studies address concepts such as methodology, institutionalization, learning music by ear and silent knowledge. Material for the study is collected through semi-structured interviews. The interviews were transcribed and then analyzed thematically. The result presents the teachers' methodical way of thinking about genre-specific exercises. These have either been designed by themselves, based on tunes or based on existing material that has been adapted to the genre. Furthermore, thoughts emerge about silent knowledge in a learning by ear-tradition and how this is seen in relation to education. A traditional music methodology that is about to be shaped and developed, due to traditional music taking place in the educational environment, is discussed by the respondents. The discussion addresses how new tools for learning develop when the music is put in new contexts and which tools teachers think are important for the learning of fiddle and traditional music.

Föreliggande uppsats syftar till att undersöka vad fyra musiklärare på högstadiet har för musikalisk bakgrund och hur de använder sig av traditionell västerländsk notskrift i undervisningen. Tidigare forskning tar upp noters likhet med skriftspråk, noters roll i musikundervisning och identitet och förebilder i musik. Som teoretisk utgångspunkt har sociokulturellt perspektiv använts. Halvstrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes med fyra musiklärare i högstadiet och analyserades med tematisk analys. Resultaten visade att noter främst användes i undervisning i trumspel och melodispel på piano och mer sällan i undervisning i sång, gitarr och ackordspel på piano. Det framkom även att de musiklärare som hade en mer populärmusikalisk bakgrund tenderade att använda noter mindre i undervisningen än de med en klassisk bakgrund. Vidare diskuteras ur vilka perspektiv sambandet mellan musikalisk bakgrund och notanvändning kan förstås, praktiska aspekter av att undervisa med eller utan noter och hur musikundervisning speglar noters samhällsstatus. / This study aims to examine the musical background of four music teachers in lower secondary school and how they use traditional Western musical notation in their teaching. Previous research addresses the similarities of musical notation with written language, the role of musical notation in music teaching and identity and role models in music. Socio- cultural perspective has been used as a theoretical starting point. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with four music teachers in lower secondary school and analyzed using thematic analysis. The results showed that musical notation is mainly used in teaching drums and melody playing on piano but rarely when teaching singing, guitar and chord playing on piano. The study also showed that the music teachers who had a more pop musical background tended to use musical notation less in their teaching than those with a classical background. Furthermore, it is discussed from which perspectives the connection between musical background and the use of musical notation can be understood, practical aspects of teaching with or without musical notation and how music teaching reflects the social status of musical notation.