Novel polymer-enhanced photodefined through-silicon via (TSV) and passive technologies have been demonstrated for silicon interposers to obtain compact heterogeneous computing and mixed-signal systems. These technologies include: (1) Polymer-clad TSVs with thick (~20 µm) liners to help reduce TSV losses and stress, and obtain optical TSVs in parallel for interposer-to-interposer long-distance communication; (2) Polymer-embedded vias with copper vias embedded in polymer wells to significantly reduce the TSV losses; (3) Coaxial vias in polymer wells to reduce the TSV losses with controlled impedance; (4) Antennas over polymer wells to attain a high radiation efficiency; and (5) High-Q inductors over polymer wells. Cleanroom fabrication and characterization of the technologies have been demonstrated. For the fabricated polymer-clad TSVs, resistance and synchrotron x-ray diffraction (XRD) measurements have been demonstrated. High-frequency measurements up to 170 GHz and time-domain measurements up to 10 Gbps have been demonstrated for the fabricated polymer-embedded vias. For the fabricated coaxial vias and inductors, high-frequency measurements up to 50 GHz have been demonstrated. Lastly, for the fabricated antennas, measurements in the W-band have been demonstrated.

Clock Distribution Networks play a vital role in performance and reliability of a system. However, temperature gradients observed in 3D ICs hamper the functionality of CDNs in terms of varying skew and propagation delay. This thesis presents two compensation techniques, Adaptive Voltage and Controllable Delay, to overcome these problems. The compensation methods are validated using a FPGA-based test vehicle. Modification in traditional buffer design are also presented and the performance as well as the area and power overhead of both the implementations is compared.

As the convergence of multiple functions in a single electronic device drives current electronic trends, the need for increasing integration density is becoming more emphasized than in the past. To keep up with the industrial need and realize the new system integration law, three-dimensional (3-D) integration called System-on-Package (SoP) is becoming necessary. However, the commercialization of 3-D integration should overcome several technical barriers, one of which is the difficulty for the electrical design of interconnections. The 3-D interconnection design is difficult because of the modeling challenge of electrical coupling from the complicated structures of a large number of interconnections. In addition, mixed-signal design requires broadband modeling, which covers a large frequency spectrum for integrated microsystems. By using currently available methods, the electrical modeling of 3-D interconnections can be a very challenging task. This dissertation proposes a new method for constructing a broadband model of a large number of 3-D interconnections. The basic idea to address the many interconnections is using modal basis functions that capture electrical effects in interconnections. Since the use of global modal basis functions alleviates the need for discretization process of the interconnection structure, the computational cost is reduced considerably. The resultant interconnection model is a RLGC model that describes the broadband electrical behavior including losses and couplings. The smaller number of basis functions makes the interconnection model simpler, and therefore allows the generation of network parameters at reduced computational cost. Focusing on the modeling of bonding wires in stacked ICs and through-silicon via (TSV) interconnections, this research validates the interconnection modeling approach using several examples from 3-D full-wave EM simulation results.

Ces travaux de thèse portent sur la fabrication de via traversants conducteurs, brique technologique indispensable pour l’intégration des composants microélectroniques en 3 dimensions. Pour ce faire, une voie « tout-électrochimique » a été explorée en raison de son faible coût de fabrication par rapport aux techniques par voie chimique sèche. Ainsi, la gravure de macropores ordonnés traversants a été réalisée par anodisation du silicium en présence d’acide fluorhydrique puis leur remplissage de cuivre par dépôt électrochimique. L’objectif est de faire du silicium macroporeux une alternative crédible à la gravure sèche (DRIE) pour la structuration du silicium.Les conditions de gravure de matrices de macropores ordonnés traversants ont été étudiées à la fois dans des substrats silicium de type n et p faiblement dopés. La composition de l’électrolyte ainsi que le motif des matrices ont été optimisés afin de garantir la gravure de via traversants de forte densité et à facteur de forme élevé. Une fois gravés, les via traversant ont été remplis de cuivre. En optimisant ces paramètres une résistance minimale égale à 32 mΩ/via (soit 1,06 fois la résistivité théorique du cuivre à 20°C) a été mesurée. / These thesis works deal with the achievement of Through Silicon Via (TSV) essential technological issue for microelectronic device 3D integration. For this purpose, we opted for a “full-electrochemical” way of TSV production because of lower fabrication costs as compared to dry etching and deposition techniques. Indeed, ordered through silicon macropores were carried out by silicon anodization in hydrofluoric acid-containing solution and then filled by copper electrochemical deposition. The main objective is to determine if the macroporous silicon arrays can be a viable alternative as Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE).The etching parameters of through silicon macropore arrays were studied both in low-doped n- and p-type silicon. The electrolyte composition as well as the density of the initiation sites was optimized to enable the growth of high aspect ratio, high density through silicon ordered macropores. After silicon anodization, through via were filled with copper. By optimizing the copper deposition parameters (bath composition and applied potential), the resistance per via was measured equal to 32 mΩ (i.e. 1.06 times higher than the theoretical copper bulk resistivity).

Ce travail de thèse vise la définition et la mise au point de technologies pour l'empilement depuces microélectroniques dans un polymère et connectées électriquement par des viastraversants. Il explore deux voies : l’une de caractère industriel, utilisant une résine époxychargée en billes de silice E2517, l'autre, plus exploratoire, est basée sur l'utilisation de laSU8.Nous avons travaillé sur la mise au point des différentes étapes permettant d'empiler 4niveaux de puces amincies à 80 microns (enrobées) et empilées sur des épaisseurs de l'ordredu millimètre. Le problème du perçage des vias a été abordé et étudié à travers la mise aupoint de procédés d'usinage au laser des résines de type industriel. La métallisation encouches minces de ces trous de facteur de forme élevée (20) a été menée de sorte à atteindredes valeurs de résistance d'accès les plus faibles possibles.Un comparatif des deux voies utilisant la SU8 et la résine E2517 a été effectué et ses résultatscommentés en termes de faisabilité techniques et ses projections dans le domaine industriel.Des tests de fiabilité thermomécaniques ont été menés de concert avec une modélisation paréléments fini afin de valider les résultats des expérimentations réalisées dans le cadre de cetteétude / The subject of this thesis is the definition and development of TPV (Through Polymer Via)technology to stacking chips. The principal objective is to increase the potentialities of thevertical staking (complex IC; multiple I/O...) of Si chips without loss of performance or yield.The technique used consists to surround the IC chips by using particular resin and to fill (withmetallic films) the vertical holes drilled in this material. It explores two ways: one of anindustrial character, using an epoxy resin filled with silica beads E2517, other, moreexploratory, is based on the use of SU8.We worked on the development of different stages to stack four levels of chips thinned to 80microns (coated) and stacked on the thickness of one millimeter. The problem of drilling viashas been discussed and studied through the development of laser drilling processes ofindustrial resins. The thin-film metallization of the holes of high aspect ratio (20) wasconducted in order to reach values of access resistance as low as possible.A comparison of the two channels using SU8 resin and E2517 was carried out and the resultsdiscussed in terms of technical feasibility and its projections in the industrial field.Thermomechanical reliability tests were conducted in conjuction with finite element modelingto validate the results of experiments conducted in this study.

Continued technology scaling together with the integration of disparate technologies in a single chip means that device performance continues to outstrip interconnect and packaging capabilities, and hence there exist many difficult engineering challenges, most notably in power management, noise isolation, and intra and inter-chip communication. Significant research effort spanning many decades has been expended on traditional VLSI integration technologies, encompassing process, circuit and architectural issues to tackle these problems. Recently however, three- dimensional (3-D) integration has emerged as a leading contender in the challenge to meet performance, heterogeneous integration, cost, and size demands through this decade and beyond. Through silicon via (TSV) based 3-D wafer-level integration is an emerging vertical interconnect methodology that is used to route the signal and power supply links through all chips in the stack vertically. Delay and signal integrity (SI) calculation for signal propagation through TSVs is a critical analysis step in the physical design of such systems. In order to reduce design time and mirror well established practices, it is desirable to carry this out in two stages, with the physical structures being modelled by parasitic parameters in equivalent circuits, and subsequent analysis of the equivalent circuits for the desired metric. This thesis addresses both these issues. Parasitic parameter extraction is carried out using a field solver to explore trends in typical technologies to gain an insight into the variation of resistive, capacitive and inductive parasitics including coupling effects. A set of novel closed-form equations are proposed for TSV parasitics in terms of physical dimensions and material properties, allowing the electrical modelling of TSV bundles without the need for computationally expensive field-solvers. Suitable equivalent circuits including capacitive and inductive coupling are derived, and comparisons with field solver provided values are used to show the accuracy of the proposed parasitic parameter models for the purpose of performance and SI analysis. The deep submicron era saw the interconnection delay rather than the gate delay become the major bottleneck in modern digital design. The nature of this problem in 3-D circuits is studied in detail in this thesis. The ubiquitous technique of repeater insertion for reducing propagation delay and signal degradation is examined for TSVs, and suitable strategies and analysis techniques are proposed. Further, a minimal power smart repeater suitable for global on-chip interconnects, which has the potential to reduce power consumption by as much as 20% with respect to a traditional inverter is proposed. A modeling and analysis methodology is also proposed, that makes the smart repeater easier to amalgamate in CAD flows at different levels of hierarchy from initial signal planning to detailed place and route when compared to alternatives proposed in the literature. Finally, the topic of system-level performance estimation for massively integrated systems is discussed. As designers are presented with an extra spatial dimension in 3-D integration, the complexity of the layout and the architectural trade-offs also increase. Therefore, to obtain a true improvement in performance, a very careful analysis using detailed models at different hierarchical levels is crucial. This thesis presents a cohesive analysis of the technological, cost, and performance trade-offs for digital and mixed-mode systems, outlining the choices available at different points in the design and their ramifications / QC 20100916

Ces dernières années ont vu l'émergence d'un nouveaux concept dans le domaine de la microélectronique pour répondre aux besoins grandissant en termes de performances et taille des puces et trouver une alternative au loi de Moore et de More than Moore qui atteignent leur limites. Il s'agit de l'intégration tridimensionnelle des circuits intégrés. Cette innovation de rupture repose sur l'empilement de puces aux fonctionnalités différentes et la transmission des signaux au travers des substrats de silicium via des TSV (via traversant le silicium). Très prometteurs en termes de bande passante et de puissance consommée devant les circuits 2D, les circuits intégrés 3D permettent aussi d'avoir des facteurs de forme plus agressifs. Des points clés par rapport aux applications en vogue sur le marché (téléphonie, appareils numériques) Un prototype nommé Wide I/O DRAM réalisé à ST et au Leti a démontré ses performances face à une puce classique POP (Package on Package), avec une bande passante multipliée par huit et une consommation divisée par deux. Cependant, l'intégration de plus en plus poussée, combinée à la montée en fréquence des circuits, soulève les problèmes des diaphonies entre les interconnexions TSV et les circuits intégrés, qui se manifestent par des perturbations dans le substrat. Ces TSV doivent pouvoir véhiculer des signaux agressifs sans perturber le fonctionnement de blocs logiques ou analogiques situés à proximité, sensibles aux perturbations substrat. Cette thèse a pour objectif d'évaluer ces niveaux de diaphonies sur une large gamme de fréquence (jusqu'à 40 GHz) entre le TSV et les transistors et d'apporter des solutions potentielles pour les réduire. Elle repose sur de la conception de structure de test 3D, leur caractérisation, la modélisation des mécanismes de couplage, et des simulations. / To improve performances of integrated circuits and decrease the technology cost, designers follow “Moore's law” and “Moore than Moore law”, respectively consisting in increasing the transistor density and integrating heterogeneous circuits. This two challenges to overcome leads to a new one: the improvement of the interconnect density. In 2D circuits, the pitch of the pads is still inaccurate compared to the strong component density. Wire bonding and bumps connecting the different chips (Processor, Memory, Logic…) are long and big, leading to RC delays, losses and electrical coupling. 3D integration is a promising strategy consisting in optimizing interconnects by processing TSVs, short and high-density-allowed connections crossing the silicon bulk involving an electrically efficient way to connect the chips. To achieve high performance and reliability in 3D IC, new design rules have to be investigated because of the specific electrical, mechanical and thermal constraints for 3D stacks. Works presented focus on the high frequency substrate noise generated by high speed signals transmitted along TSVs and its impact on sensitive circuits, such as Low Noise Amplifiers. This phenomenon is a major concern for 3D circuit design and yet still lack of extraction results due to experimental difficulties in extracting noise values in a complex 3D stack. The aim of the thesis was to characterize the coupling noise between TSV and MOS devices to understand involved phenomena and to propose solutions. To raise these objectives, we studied isolated TSV, coupled TSV, TSV to wells and MOS transistor coupling through multi-physics simulations, modeling, and measurement up to 40GHz according to polarization and frequency. Specific 3D radiofrequency test structures in 4 ports have been designed for experimental characterization.

A novel CVD copper process is described using two new copper CVD precursors, KI3 and KI5, for the fabrication of IC or TSV (Through Silicon Via) copper interconnects. The highly conformal CVD copper can provide seed layers for subsequent copper electroplating or can be used to directly fabricate the interconnect in one step. These new precursors are thermally stable yet chemically reactive under CVD conditions, growing copper films of exceptionally high purity at high growth rates. Their thermal stability can allow for elevated evaporation temperatures to generate the high precursor vapor pressures needed for deep penetration into high aspect ratio TSV vias. Using formic acid vapor as a reducing gas with KI5, copper films of > 99.99 atomic % purity were grown at 250°C on titanium nitride at a growth rate of > 1500 Å/min. Using tantalum nitride coated TSV type wafers, ~ 1700 Å of highly conformal copper was grown at 225°C into 32 μm × 5 μm trenches with good adhesion. With ruthenium barriers we were able to grow copper at 125°C at a rate of 20 Å/min to give a continuous ~ 300 Å copper film. In this respect, rapid low temperature CVD copper growth offers an alternative to the long cycle times associated with copper ALD which can contribute to copper agglomeration occurring. © 2008 Elsevier B.V.

The development of micro and nano-electromechanical systems (MEMS and NEMS) with entirely new or improved functionalities is typically based on novel or improved designs, materials and fabrication methods. However, today’s micro- and nano-fabrication is restrained by manufacturing paradigms that have been established by the integrated circuit (IC) industry over the past few decades. The exclusive use of IC manufacturing technologies leads to limited material choices, limited design flexibility and consequently to sub-optimal MEMS and NEMS devices. The work presented in this thesis breaks new ground with a multitude of novel approaches for the integration of non-standard materials that enable the fabrication of 3D micro and nanoelectromechanical systems. The objective of this thesis is to highlight methods that make use of non-standard materials with superior characteristics or methods that use standard materials and fabrication techniques in a novel context. The overall goal is to propose suitable and cost-efficient fabrication and integration methods, which can easily be made available to the industry. The first part of the thesis deals with the integration of bulk wire materials. A novel approach for the integration of at least partly ferromagnetic bulk wire materials has been implemented for the fabrication of high aspect ratio through silicon vias. Standard wire bonding technology, a very mature back-end technology, has been adapted for yet another through silicon via fabrication method and applications including liquid and vacuum packaging as well as microactuators based on shape memory alloy wires. As this thesis reveals, wire bonding, as a versatile and highly efficient technology, can be utilized for applications far beyond traditional interconnections in electronics packaging. The second part presents two approaches for the 3D heterogeneous integration based on layer transfer. Highly efficient monocrystalline silicon/ germanium is integrated on wafer-level for the fabrication of uncooled thermal image sensors and monolayer-graphene is integrated on chip-level for the use in diaphragm-based pressure sensors. The last part introduces a novel additive fabrication method for layer-bylayer printing of 3D silicon micro- and nano-structures. This method combines existing technologies, including focused ion beam implantation and chemical vapor deposition of silicon, in order to establish a high-resolution fabrication process that is related to popular 3D printing techniques. / <p>QC 20121207</p>

Vertical stacking—based on modern manufacturing and integration technologies—of multiple 2D chips enables three-dimensional integrated circuits (3D ICs). This exploitation of the third dimension is generally accepted for aiming at higher packing densities, heterogeneous integration, shorter interconnects, reduced power consumption, increased data bandwidth, and realizing highly-parallel systems in one device. However, the commercial acceptance of 3D ICs is currently behind its expectations, mainly due to challenges regarding manufacturing and integration technologies as well as design automation. This work addresses three selected, practically relevant design challenges: (i) increasing the constrained reusability of proven, reliable 2D intellectual property blocks, (ii) planning different types of (comparatively large) through-silicon vias with focus on their impact on design quality, as well as (iii) structural planning of massively-parallel, 3D-IC-specific interconnect structures during 3D floorplanning. A key concept of this work is to account for interconnect structures and their properties during early design phases in order to support effective and high-quality 3D-IC-design flows. To tackle the above listed challenges, modular design-flow extensions and methodologies have been developed. Experimental investigations reveal the effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed techniques, and provide findings on 3D integration with particular focus on interconnect structures. We suggest consideration of these findings when formulating guidelines for successful 3D-IC design automation. / Dreidimensional integrierte Schaltkreise (3D-ICs) beruhen auf neuartigen Herstellungs- und Integrationstechnologien, wobei vor allem “klassische” 2D-ICs vertikal zu einem neuartigen 3D-System gestapelt werden. Dieser Ansatz zur Erschließung der dritten Dimension im Schaltkreisentwurf ist nach Expertenmeinung dazu geeignet, höhere Integrationsdichten zu erreichen, heterogene Integration zu realisieren, kürzere Verdrahtungswege zu ermöglichen, Leistungsaufnahmen zu reduzieren, Datenübertragungsraten zu erhöhen, sowie hoch-parallele Systeme in einer Baugruppe umzusetzen. Aufgrund von technologischen und entwurfsmethodischen Schwierigkeiten bleibt jedoch bisher die kommerzielle Anwendung von 3D-ICs deutlich hinter den Erwartungen zurück. In dieser Arbeit werden drei ausgewählte, praktisch relevante Problemstellungen der Entwurfsautomatisierung von 3D-ICs bearbeitet: (i) die Verbesserung der (eingeschränkten) Wiederverwendbarkeit von zuverlässigen 2D-Intellectual-Property-Blöcken, (ii) die komplexe Planung von verschiedenartigen, verhältnismäßig großen Through-Silicion Vias unter Beachtung ihres Einflusses auf die Entwurfsqualität, und (iii) die strukturelle Einbindung von massiv-parallelen, 3D-IC-spezifischen Verbindungsstrukturen während der Floorplanning-Phase. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit besteht darin, Verbindungsstrukturen mit deren wesentlichen Eigenschaften bereits in den frühen Phasen des Entwurfsprozesses zu berücksichtigen. Dies begünstigt einen qualitativ hochwertigen Entwurf von 3D-ICs. Die in dieser Arbeit vorgestellten modularen Entwurfsprozess-Erweiterungen bzw. -Methodiken dienen zur effizienten Lösung der oben genannten Problemstellungen. Experimentelle Untersuchungen bestätigen die Wirksamkeit sowie die Effektivität der erarbeiten Methoden. Darüber hinaus liefern sie praktische Erkenntnisse bezüglich der Anwendung von 3D-ICs und der Planung deren Verbindungsstrukturen. Diese Erkenntnisse sind zur Ableitung von Richtlinien für den erfolgreichen Entwurf von 3D-ICs dienlich.