Standardisation of professional work is a major policy concern to ensure quality and efficiency of services and a number of hospitals are now focusing on the use of clinical pathways as an important tool to standardise their work. This study sheds light on the processes set in motion when notions of standardisation meet local practice. In order to gain insight into what clinical pathways mean for professional work in mental health care, the focus of the study was to explore the contexts in which standardisation by “rule production” takes place. Two empirical cases from Norwegian mental health care show how dedicated professionals are in charge of carrying out the standardisation work, strongly influenced by a steering framework of defined governmental policies where employee involvement and responsibility ensured loyalty to the idea.  Along with a “package” of ideas, new bodies and techniques, clinical pathways contribute to the institutionalisation of prima facie knowledge in demonstrating that evidence basing is linked to steering and control of employees. Thus, professional autonomy is threatened in an insidious way: through the institutionalisation of evidence-based knowledge as ‘prima facie’ knowledge in combination with professionals who standardise and control their own work. The thesis therefore concludes that the control of professional work has now become a complex and sophisticated process where professional work is “controlled by knowledge”.

L'accès d'une société à un prétoire est source de nombreuses problématiques procédurales. Cela étant, ces dernières n'étant pas suffisamment considérées par le législateur ou idéalement compilées au sein d'une codification spécifique, elles demeurent la cause de légitimes tourments pratiques. Les interrogations sont alors nombreuses : elles portent sur les droits susceptibles d’être invoqués devant le juge, par ou contre la société, sa capacité à jouir de l'action en justice, le pouvoir ou la qualité de ceux qui prétendent être à même de l’incarner à la barre ; la juridiction compétente pour connaître du litige qui l'intéresse ; la gestion du temps procédural en adéquation avec le rythme de la vie sociale ; l’élaboration et la communication des actes de procédure établis en son nom ou à son intention ; la garantie d'exécution des décisions rendues en sa présence. Le risque appréhendé est l’échec procédural. À l’origine de la difficulté : toute l'ambiguïté existentielle et fonctionnelle de ce justiciable atypique qu'est la société. L’on aurait pu a priori douter que le droit procédural parvienne à s’adapter aux singularités du justiciable sociétaire. Il suffisait, pour laisser place à quelques humbles mais utiles certitudes en la matière, de procéder à un rassemblement cohérent de tout ce qui constitue la substance du droit procédural sociétaire, suivant un axe de lecture le rendant compréhensible. Et c'est ce que s'efforce de réaliser la présente thèse, au gré des difficultés pratiques qu'elle traite et auxquelles elle suggère les solutions susceptibles de convenir / Going to court for a company involves many procedural issues. Since those issues are not sufficiently taken into account by legislators or ideally part of a compilation within a specific form of codification, they may be held responsible for inevitable practical difficulties. Many questions arise : concerning rights likely to be brought up before a judge by a company or against a company ; its ability to benefit from an action ; the power or quality of those who claim to represent the company before a judge, the competence of a court to hear the case at hand ; managing procedural time in line with the pace of corporate life ; drafting and communicating the procedural acts issued in the company’s name or for the company ; ensuring the court rulings taken in the company’s presence be enforced. The obvious risk is procedural failure. The difficulty stems from the existential and functional ambiguities of this a-typical company. At first sight, procedural does not seem to be able to adapt to the nature of the claimant company. In order to leave room for some humble but useful certainties in this area, one must coherently gather all that constitutes the substance of companies’ procedural law, based on an interpretation that will make it understandable. That is the aim of the present dissertation while dealing with practical difficulties and suggesting suitable solutions. “The Claimant Company” is a plea for the recognition of the governing law in disputes between companies, which deserves to be part and parcel of the many implications of jurisprudence

Le droit procédural de l’action en contrefaçon de brevet d’invention n’est pas un droit autonome. En effet, si l’action en contrefaçon de brevet dépend majoritairement de règles procédurales qui lui sont propres, elle repose également sur une multitude de règles appartenant à des systèmes normatifs plus généraux, tels que, notamment, le droit judiciaire privé, le droit des biens, le droit des contrats, ou encore les droits fondamentaux. L’instance en contrefaçon de brevet, qui relève pour sa part essentiellement du droit judiciaire privé général, intègre un certain nombre de règles spécifiques qui lui confèrent ainsi une physionomie originale. Seule l’étude des rapports existant entre ces différents systèmes normatifs, à chaque étape de l’action et de l’instance, permet de clarifier les aspects procéduraux de l’action en contrefaçon de brevet d’invention et de sécuriser les justiciables dans l’exercice de leurs droits. / The procedural law of patent infringement action is not an autonomous law. Indeed, if patent infringement action largely depends on its own procedural rules, it also relies on a multitude of rules belonging to more general normative systems, such as, in particular, the private judicial law, property law, contract law, or human rights. The patent infringement proceedings, which fundamentaly depends on private judicial law, integrates some specific rules, which thus give it a unique legal physionomy. Only the study of the relationship between these different normative systems at each stage of both the action and the proceedings, clarifies the procedural aspects of the action of patent infringement and secure as well as protecting litigants while exercizing their rights.

L’objet de cette thèse est de dresser une méthode qui permet d’expliquer, au regard du droit commun, le phénomène de l’extension et la transmission de certaines clauses dans les chaînes de contrats et les ensembles contractuels. Cette méthode devrait aussi justifier certaines dérogations au droit commun.La thèse commence par aborder certaines questions préalables relatives aux groupes de contrats, qui ont une portée directe sur l’objet de cette étude. Les membres de l’ensemble contractuel et de la chaîne de contrats sont des tiers dans leurs rapports respectifs. L’action directe, qui constitue l’élément dynamique de la chaîne de contrats, peut s’analyser en un mécanisme de compensation multilatérale. L’ensemble contractuel multipartite ne peut produire ses effets à l’égard de ses membres que si ces derniers connaissaient l’existence des liens qui unissent leur contrat aux autres contrats de l’ensemble. Enfin, dans les ensembles contractuels bipartites, une distinction s’impose entre le véritable ensemble contractuel et entre le contrat complexe, qui n’est qu’un contrat unique divisé en plusieurs intrumentum. Une méthode chronologique est proposée, prenant en compte le nombre d’échanges de consentements ayant eu lieu entre les deux parties.Après avoir répondu à ces questions préalables, la thèse examine certaines hypothèses dans la jurisprudence dans lesquelles l’effet d’une clause a été étendu ou transmis, dans une chaîne de contrats ou un ensemble contractuel. Les clauses de compétence font l’objet du contentieux le plus abondant mais beaucoup d’autres clauses, telles que la clause limitative de responsabilité, la clause de non-concurrence, la clause de non-garantie et la clause de renonciation à recours font également l’objet d’une extension ou d’une transmission dans les groupes de contrats. L’examen de cette jurisprudence a pu écarter certaines décisions qui ont paru mal fondés et de poser des principes généraux qui peuvent gérer la problématique de l’extension et de la transmission dans les groupes de contrats.Ces règles à caractères générales dégagés après l’examen de la jurisprudence, associées aux réponses qui ont été apportées en premier lieu aux questions préalables, ont abouti à la création de la méthode recherchée. La première étape dans cette méthode est de reconnaître le type de groupe de contrats auquel on fait face : s’agit-il d’un ensemble contractuel bipartite, d’un ensemble contractuel multipartite ou d’une chaîne de contrats ?Si c’est un ensemble contractuel bipartite, la première question qu’on devrait se poser serait de savoir s’il s’agit d’un seul contrat divisé en plusieurs instrumentum, ou d’un véritable ensemble contractuel. Si le groupe prend la forme d’une chaîne de contrats ou d’un ensemble multipartite, la problématique de l’effet relatif des contrats paraît alors sur le devant de la scène. Il a été démontré que l’article 1165 ne fait obstacle qu’à l’extension des clauses à contenu obligationnel. Cinq éléments caractéristiques ont été retenus pour caractériser la clause génératrice d’obligation. Si la clause a un contenu obligationnel, elle ne peut en principe être étendue aux autres membres de la chaîne ou de l’ensemble contractuel. Sinon, la clause est potentiellement opposable.Les dérogations à l’effet relatif des contrats ne sont qu’au nombre de deux. Dans les chaînes de contrats, cette dérogation se manifeste par la transmission des droits à l’ayant cause à titre particulier. Dans les ensembles contractuels une autre dérogation au principe de l’effet relatif des contrats apparaît lorsque le respect de la force obligatoire de la clause exige inévitablement de l’étendre à un autre membre de l’ensemble.Dans les chaînes de contrats, les clauses, sans effet obligationnel, qui affectent l’existence ou le montant de la créance sont de plein droit opposables aux autres membres de la chaîne. / The objet of this thesis is to create a method that could explain a phenomenon that has been observed by scholars and practitioners of law for decades; which is the extension end the transmission of certain clauses in chain agreements and contractual sets. Through this method one should be able, on one hand, to justify this phenomenon in regard to general principals of law and, on the other hand, to find an explanation for some necessary derogations to the Law.The first step in this thesis was to find answers for some basic questions about groups of contracts that have a direct impact on our subject. We have demonstrated that the fundament of contractual sets relies in the concept of “economy of contract”. Members of chain agreements and contractual sets should be considered as third parties in their mutual relationships. Direct action, which constitutes the dynamic face of chain agreements, could be analyzed as a multilateral set-off. In multiparty contractual sets, the set could not produce its effects in regard to its members unless it could be proven that the concerned member has knowledge of the existence of the other contracts forming the set and of the links between these contracts and his own one. Finally, in two parties’ contractual sets, it’s mandatory to distinguish between a real contractual set, and complex contract which is merely a contract written in several documents. We have proposed a chronological method to establish this distinction, taking into account the number of times the parties have exchanged their consent. After this preliminary part, we have studied precedents regarding the extension and the transmission of some clauses in chain agreements and contractual sets. Jurisdiction clauses and arbitration clauses are by far the most represented, but other clauses such as clauses of disclaimer of warranty, clauses of limited liability, clauses of waiver of action and clauses of non-competition are also sometimes extended or transmitted to other contracts and/or to other members in the group. Through an analysis of these decisions, we have shown that some of them didn’t have enough legal ground. Using those decisions that seemed to us well-founded, we have deduced a number of rules that could be applied for other cases of extension and transmission of clauses in groups of contracts.The rules that we have deduces from the study of the case law, together with the answers that we have provided for some preliminary questions in the first part of the thesis, have lead us to find the method we are looking for in this study.The first step in this method is to recognize the type of group of contracts involved: is it a chain agreement, a multiparty contractual set or a two parties’ set ?If it’s a contractual set between two parties, the first question should be to decide whether it’s really a contractual set, or if it’s a complex contract. If the group of contracts involved is a chain agreement or a multiparty contractual set, then one should wonder whether the doctrine of privity of contract could form an obstacle against the extension or the transmission of the clause. We have demonstrated in this thesis that article 1165 of the Civil Code is only applicable to clauses that contain an obligation. In order to qualify recognize clauses having an “obligational” content, we have proposed five fundamental elements. If the clause contains an obligation it could not be extended to the other members of the chain agreement or the contractual set. Otherwise, the clause is potentially opposable.There are only two exceptions to the doctrine of privity of contract. The first one, in chain agreements is the transmission of rights to singular successors. This exception could be justified by article 1122 of the Civil Code and by the concept of accessoire. The second exception could be seen in contractual sets where the binding authority of the clause could not be respected unless it is extended to certain third parties.

Dans l’arbitrage relatif aux investissements, on entend par exceptions préliminaires les incidents de procédure par lesquels les Etats contestent la compétence du tribunal arbitral ou la recevabilité de la requête de l’investisseur. Avec le développement du contentieux arbitral, le recours à cette technique contentieuse se fait de plus en plus fréquent, mais la présentation des exceptions préliminaires par les Etats et leur traitement par les tribunaux arbitraux sont souvent sources de confusion. Notre étude propose de préciser les concepts clés du contentieux international de compétence et de recevabilité et de revenir sur leur distinction dans un domaine spécialisé du contentieux international – le contentieux arbitral fondé sur les traités de protection et de promotion des investissements. La réaffirmation de la distinction entre les questions de compétence et de recevabilité permettra d’en proposer une classification en fonction de l’objet de l’exception préliminaire et de mieux saisir la portée de la notion d’exception préliminaire qui constitue un moyen de leur mise en oeuvre dans l’arbitrage transnational. Cette classification commandera le régime qu’il convient de réserver à chaque type de défense, afin d’ordonner la présentation des exceptions préliminaires par les Etats et leur examen par les arbitres, examen qui détermine leur faculté d’exercer la fonction juridictionnelle. / In investment treaty arbitration, preliminary objections can be defined as procedural issues raised by the States in order to contest arbitral tribunal jurisdiction or admissibility of an investor claim. With the rise of investment treaty arbitration, recourse to this litigation technique is getting more and more frequent. However, the submission of preliminary objections by the States, as well as their examination by the arbitral tribunals are frequently confusing. Our research focuses on the core concepts of jurisdiction and admissibility in international litigation in order to reconsider their distinction in a specialised field of international litigation - investment treaty arbitration. On the basis of this distinction, we propose a classification of preliminary issues according to their object. This classification will order the legal regime to be applied to each type of preliminary defence, thus putting some order in the submission of preliminary objections by the States and their examination by the arbitrators, examination which relates to their capacity to exercise their jurisdictional function.

This diploma thesis called "Public Administration Reform and its influence on an agenda of the government care of historical monuments" studies possible reasons of reduced quality of arbitrating in the agenda of the government care of historical monuments after delimitation of this agenda to municipal offices by a municipality with expanded competency. To premise, I consider the public administration reform in my thesis only as an instrument to refer to its possible effects on the agenda of the government care of historical monuments. The diploma thesis points at frequent influence exertion of very powerful local elements by political representatives in ORP leadership who are supported by various lobby interest groups. Just the influence of the mentioned lobby pressure groups is possibly more powerful factor for arbitrating on the level of lower territorially municipality than the influence of the government (legal rules). This study also explores questions of a model functionality of an agenda of the present government care of historical monuments under various outer and inner impacts of the public policy (especially specific interests of its participants in a system of penetrating areas). The work also suggests a variety of potential solutions, which tries to present possible setting of the...

The principle of complementarity is a tool used to punish the commission of core international crimes. A concerted approach is required to combat war crimes, genocide, crimes against humanity and aggression. The Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court needs to fully appreciate the express and implied discretionary powers of states to ensure all possible accountability mechanisms are explored. Failure by the Prosecutor to do so results in missed opportunities to capitalise on various options related to the proper application of complementarity. Therefore, there is a need for consultations to establish that the International Criminal Court and prosecutions can no longer exist without competing alternatives preferred by states. The current misunderstandings on the application of complementarity are rooted in unresolved state and prosecutorial discretions. The endangering of state discretion threatens the integrity and credibility of the International Criminal Court. The unaddressed question of state discretion is also at the centre of disputes between the African Union and the International Criminal Court. Grey areas in the application of complementarity are clearly visible through the inconsistency and diversity of the International Criminal Court decisions and frequent prosecutorial policy proclamations. As a result, prosecutorial discretion needs to be checked. Prosecutorial discretion is checked at the United Nations, International Criminal Court and state levels. The checks at regional level and by non-prosecutorial options need to be explored. The call is for the International Criminal Court not to neglect the legal-political environment which the Court operates in. The environment is essential in demarcating the exercise of discretions. The Kenyatta case is illustrative of the need to invent an interpretation that reflects the evolving theory to practice reality. The development or amendment of a prosecutorial policy is desirable to give guidance on the value, circumstances and priority accorded to justice. The policy should be comprehensive enough to accommodate mechanisms which advocate for strengthened state discretion. For instance, African Union instruments and treaties reveal that the respect of state discretion is one of the core principles of the African Union system. / Public, Constitutional, and International Law / LL.D.

"Mémoire présenté à la Faculté des Études supérieures en vue de l'obtention du grade de LL.M. en Maîtrise en droit Option recherche" / Le crime d'agression se veut etre un des quatre crimes internationaux sous la juridiction de la CPI. Lorsque les delegues a la Conference de Rome n'eurent point atteint de consensus sur une definition du crime, celui-ci resta, depuis, indefini en droit. En consequence, la CPI n'aura juridiction pour entendre des causes portant sur le crime d'agression qu'une fois la definition sera adoptee par l'Assemblee des Etats Parties au plus tot en 2009. Ce memoire traite trois problematiques liees au crime d'agression : la question de la responsabilite penale individuelle, le role du Conseil de securite de l'ONU, et les parametres du crime en tant que tel. La responsabilite penale individuelle est analysee, inter alia, du point de vue du principe des sources du droit international. Quant al'eventuelle implication du Conseil de securite dans le champ de competence de la CPI sur le crime d'agression, l'auteure soutient tel que suit: Si le Conseil de securite se voit accorde un pouvoir plus large que celui dont il est presentement dote en vertu des articles 13(b) et 16 du Statut de Rome, chaque membre permanent aura un veto sur toute situation d'agression qui serait autrement portee devant la Cour. Ceci aura pour consequence de politiser la CPI en ce qui a trait au crime et rendra hypothethique toute definition eventuelle. Si la definition est bien con9ue et redigee, on fait valoir, qu'il n' est point necessaire de limiter davantage la competence de la CPI. Les parametres de la definition du crime proposes par l'auteure sont etablis selon les conclusions d'une analyse des notions composantes de l'agression. L'essentiel du concept se veut un recours illegal et non-necessaire qui constitue une rupture ala paix. Amoins qu'il ne soit exerce en « legitime defence» ou en vertu d'un mandat du Chapitre VII, Ie recours ala force constitue prima facie une agression et s'il est suffisamment grave, il s'agira d'un crime d'agression. Ce memoire termine avec un projet de definition du crime d'agression en vue d'avancer Ie discours vers un consensus sur ces problematiques majeures. Non seulement est-il possible d'arriver aun consensus sur la definition, croit l'auteure, mais nous sommes plus que jamais al'aube d'y parvenir. / The crime of aggression is one of the four international crimes under the jurisdiction of the ICC. When delegates at the Rome Conference were unable to agree on the content of a definition, the crime was left undefined. As a result, the ICC can only begin prosecuting individuals for the crime of aggression once a definition is adopted by the Assembly of States Parties in 2009, at the earliest. This thesis examines three issues associated with the crime of aggression: the question of individual criminal responsibility, the role of the UN Security Council and the general scope of the definition of the crime of aggression itself Individual criminal liability is reviewed, inter alia, from the perspective of international sources doctrine. Regarding the role of the Security Council in relation to the crime of aggression, the author concludes: if the Security Council is vested with more powers than it already has under Articles 13(b) and 16 of the Rome Statute, each permanent member will have a veto over any situation of aggression that might otherwise be brought before the Court. This would result in a complete politicization of the ICC and render moot any future definition of the crime of aggression. If a definition for the crime of aggression is properly conceived and constructed, it is argued, there is no need to further limit the Court's exercise of jurisdiction. The author proposes general parameters for the scope ofthe definition based on conclusions reached in the analysis of the conceptual components of aggression. At its essence, the act of aggression is the unnecessary, unlawful use of force which constitutes a breach ofthe peace. Unless employed in "self-defence" or under a Chapter VII mandate, the use offorce constitutes prima facie an act of aggression, and if it is sufficiently grave, a crime ofaggression. This thesis concludes with a working definition ofthe crime of aggression to promote dialogue and ultimately a consensus on these core issues. Not only is a definition is within reach, the author believes, we are closer to it than we ever have been before.

The EU jurisdictional scheme, known as the “Brussels Regime”, confers competence to national courts to adjudicate over international matters. The main rule in Article 4(1) of the Brussels Ibis Regulation sets out that the defendant should generally be sued in the courts of the Member State where he is domiciled. For certain subject matters, the scheme allows the action to be brought elsewhere. The raison d’être is to provide an adequate counterbalance to the one-sided rule of Article 4(1). Articles 7(1) and (2) enable the claimant to launch the suit, “in matters relating to a contract”, at the court of the Member State where the contractual obligation was to be fulfilled, and, in “matters relating to tort”, in the courts for the place where the harmful event occurred. Whether to invoke Article 7 is entirely the claimant’s choice, but the final decision on its interpretation is vested in the Court. Thereby, the manner in which the Court views the provisions will effectively decide the extent of the claimant’s choice to invoke so-called special jurisdiction. It also means that greater emphasis on special jurisdiction will reduce the importance of the main rule in Article 4. Conversely, if the Court were to interpret Article 7 narrowly, its intended effect within the system would be denied. In both cases, the balance between Articles 4 and 7 has been upset. In the former case, the claimant is favoured because of the increased possibilities to choose the forum for the dispute, while in the latter case, the defendant is favoured because he retains the advantage of litigating in his home turf. The starting point for this essay is this very idea of a purported balance between litigants’ interests in EU cross-border litigation. The thesis analyses whether the Court’s case-law on general vis-à-vis special jurisdiction has transitioned from being generally defendant-friendly to claimant-friendly. It is argued that already from the first judgments rendered on the original Brussels Convention in 1976, increasingly more disputes have been launched at special fora, which has amounted to a claimant-friendly scheme. It is also argued that this development has been at the expense of the defendant. Greater choice for the claimant means in turn that the defendant’s ability to foresee before what courts he may be sued has been largely impaired. The thesis highlights how this imbalance is the result of inherent challenges in the Brussels Regime, particularly in relation to how the relevant connecting factors are designated. It is proposed that the unwanted effects of the Court’s practice as well as the shortcomings of the scheme itself are to be considered in the Commission’s evaluationof the Brussels Ibis Regulation, which is presently in the works.

The privatisation and liberalisation of telecommunications throughout the world has resulted in the growing involvement of competition authorities in telecommunications regulation, alongside telecommunications sector-specific regulators. The existence of both sector specific rules and competition rules has brought about a critical institutional challenge. The increased role of competition authorities in the telecommunications sector raises the issue of inconsistent jurisdiction in the sector. Conflicts are therefore inevitable in the absence of clear delineation of jurisdiction. The South African model for regulation in the telecommunications sector entails a sharing of jurisdiction between the sector-specific regulator, the Independent Communications Authority of South Africa (ICASA), and the competition-wide regulator, the Competition Commission. The study thus determines the interplay between the Competition Commission and ICASA as well as the competitiveness of South African telecommunications. / Communication Science / M.A. (International Communication))