During the later half of the 20th century standard form contracts began to be used more frequently in contract situations. This trend has been consistent and in today’s world numerous commercial parties employ such contracts in their business transactions. The reasons for the extended use of standard form contracts are the benefits that can be obtained for the parties such as time efficiency, effectiveness and price advantages. Standardised contracts often regulate certain issues of the contract for example the way of delivery, remedies and complaints. The definition of such contracts is corresponding in Sweden and England as contracts containing in advance standardised terms with an aim to be used similarly in contract situations with most clients or customers. As the usage of standard form contracts increased, the number of unfair contract terms also enhanced. Therefore, the legislative powers in Sweden and England realised that the rules concerning the freedom of contract had to be restricted and governed. As a result, the legislative powers introduced an open control device through statutory control. This was done in Sweden in 1976 with the enforcement of Section 36 of the Contracts Act, and in England the year after when UCTA came into force. The statutory control in both Sweden and England makes it possible to appraise the fairness of exemption clauses. The statutory control is not identical in the two states. UCTA only concerns exclusion clauses and limitation clauses regarding contract terms and non-contractual notices. In Sweden, on the other hand, there is a general doctrine of unfairness and Section 36 of the Contracts Act can set aside all kinds of agreements. The statutory control is complemented by indirect means of controlling the content of a contract through non statutory methods. The non statutory methods are concerned with the incorporation, interpretation and construction of clauses in a contract. To be valid and for a party to be able to rely on a term it must have been incorporated into the contract. The rules concerning the interpretation of standard form contracts and exclusion clauses are also of great importance. In both states the approach held is that the statutory control should be used preferably over the indirect control means, though the indirect means still has a prominent role in England through common law. Both England and Sweden agree on that the weaker party in a contract situation is in a greater need of protection by the rules of law in unfair contract situations. However unfairness can only arise if the superior party has wrongfully used the exclusion clause. Our study shows the differences between Swedish and English contract law that can result in difficulties in the harmonisation process. These differences concern the test of reasonableness of exemption clauses, the doctrine of good faith, the legal effects and to what extent the indirect means of control should be applied. The Swedish test of reasonableness may include all relevant circumstances irrespective of the time of their occurrence, before or after the entry of the contract. The courts in England are limited to circumstances that have occurred before the closure of the contract. Section 36 of the Swedish Contracts Act includes a general rule of unfairness applicable to all kinds of contract terms. The rule of unfairness in the UCTA on the other hand, is only applicable to exemption clauses and indemnity clauses and there is no general rule of unfairness in English contract law. Instead the courts rely on indirect means of control, which therefore is of greater importance in English contract law. Finally, adjustments of unfair exemption clauses has a significant role in Swedish contract law, in contrast to English contract law where any adjustment is regarded as an intrusion of the freedom of contract. To endorse one of the most important aims of the EU; a well working inner market, discussions commenced in 2001. The discussions concerned the harmonisation of the contract law within the union. The questions that arose were whether or not it was possible at all to form a European common contract law and if so, what the effects would be. An action plan was developed by the Commission and today both the EU Parliament and the Council are positive in regard to the continuing work with a reference frame. The Commission aims to pass the reference frame in 2009. Since the EU member states are diverse and have different legal systems a harmonisation of the contract law could cause difficulties. There are differences concerning legal traditions and legal values, hence the legal expertise in Europe is divided in the harmonisation question. The following study aims to analyse the existing rules of law in Sweden and England representing two diverse legal systems existing in Europe; civil law and common law. The focus of this study regards the control of exclusion clauses in standard form contracts in both legal systems. The comparison will then be used to analyse the fundamental question if the harmonisation of contract law in the EU is feasible. Specific areas within the contract law have already been harmonised, which shows a possibility to coordinate common law and civil law. Directive 93/13/EEC on Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts is one example of harmonised contract law in the EU and the principles in PECL is another example which shows that it is possible to coordinate common law and civil law. A harmonisation of the contract law will probably promote the commerce within the union and be the next step towards one of the most prominent goals of the EU, namely a well functioning common market. However, our study shows that the differences between national legislation and the differences between the legal traditions within the EU are not insignificant and a harmonisation will probably not be enforced without difficulties.

Denna undersökning har sin utgångspunkt i två romaner: Karin Boyes Kris, och Hagar Olssons Chitambo, två verk som delar många likheter. Det första delsyftet är följaktligen att utföra en komparativ och tematisk undersökning av de båda romanerna, i vilken temat frigörelse står som primär utgångspunkt. Likheterna återfinns inte enbart i romanernas innehåll, utan även i utomtextuella faktorer: författarna har recenserat varandras respektiveromaner, omständigheter som motiverar uppsatsens andra delsyfte, att undersöka huruvida Karin Boye i sitt författande av Kris kan tänkas ha påverkats av Olssons roman. Med utgångspunkt i tre relevanta infallsvinklar påvisar jag likheterna mellan verken. Identitet framstår som ett nyckelord för förståelsen av de båda protagonisternas utveckling, och syntesen av deras utveckling mot en inre tyngdpunkt utesluter inte på något sätt behovet av det kollektiva, tvärtom utvecklar de båda ett visst mått av politisk medvetenhet. Båda verken präglas av en dualitet mellan olika motsättningar, och de inre slitningar som romanernas protagonister plågas av kan sammankopplas med psykoanalysens syn på själslivet. Protagonisternas utveckling karakteriseras även av ett rituellt mönster: död och återuppståndelse, och i verken återfinns en rad explicita hänvisningar till juståteruppståndelse, som även skildras med liknande litterära begrepp. I den avslutande intertextuella analysen påvisas utifrån tidigare analysavsnitt och utifrån recensionerna att ett intertextuellt samband mellan de båda verken i hög grad är sannolikt.

The aim of this study is to investigate the syntax in Finnish literature for young people in order to arrive at fundamental information about the character of the language in literature of this kind. The corpus consists of three Tiina books by Anni Polva. My method is mainly quantitative, but also comparative. The language of the three books is compared, but the results of this comparison are also contrasted with other Finnish and also Swedish quantitative linguistic investigations. The investigation begins at the sentence and clause levels. To some extent is also considered whether syntactic features occur in main clauses or in subordinate clauses, in narrative text or in dialogues. The length of sentences and clauses is investigated. It appears that the length of sentences stated in clauses (2.2 clauses on averige) and the length of clauses in words (5 words on averige) do not differ from those typical of literature for children or adults. On the other hand the length of sentences stated in words (11 words on averige) is somewhat higher than in literature for children and adults. Active and passive clauses, mode, tense and negation in the clauses are investigated. The results show that the frequency of active clauses is high and the frequency of passive clauses is very low. The frequency of negated clauses is also very high. The most frequent mode is the indicative, followed by the conditional. There are few predicates in the imperative, and there are only isolated instances of predicates in the potential. The use of tenses resembles that in literature for children and adults: most predicates are in the past tense, followed by the present, the pluperfect and the perfect. Main clauses and subordinate clauses of different kinds are dealt with in the investigation. The proportion between main clauses and subordinate clauses is about the same as in the spoken language. The coordinating as well as the subordinating conjunctions are investigated both with regard to the actual occurrences of the conjunctions and with regard to their meanings. The most frequent coordi­nating conjunctions are ja 'and* (55.8 %) and multa 'but' (21.4 %). The classification of the conjunctions according to meaning shows that copulative conjunctions are the most frequent ones (50.7 %). Of the subordinating conjunctions että 'that' (35.7 %) and kun 'when, because' (25.0 %) are the most frequent ones. Semantically explicative conjunctions are the most frequent subordinating conjunctions (27.6 %). Syndetic coordination is most frequent in main clauses (78.8 %) as well as in subordinate clauses (98.9 %). Asyndetic coordination is clearly used as a stylistic device. A large number of different constructions are used in the corpus. Some of them are contracted clauses, some are other constructions which resemble them. The frequency of these constructions is unexpectedly high. The most frequent types of contracted clause are the necessive construction (47.9 %), the participle construction (18.3 %) and the temporal construction (15.3 %). Of the other constructions the modal construction (60.4 %) and the agent construction (12.8 %) are the most frequent ones. The structure of the sentences in the Tiina books is varied and sometimes complex. In all there are 167 different combinations of clauses in the corpus. The most frequent type of sentence consists of one main clause (27.8 %). In the combination of clauses we also find clauses with different degrees of subordination. Grade 1 is the most frequent one (87.1 %). However, there are even instances of grade 4. The position of main clauses and subordinate clauses varies a great deal. They may be mixed at will. The corpus contains a large number of clause combinations which occur once only. / digitalisering@umu

Denna undersökning har sin utgångspunkt i två romaner: Karin Boyes Kris, och Hagar Olssons Chitambo, två verk som delar många likheter. Det första delsyftet är följaktligen att utföra en komparativ och tematisk undersökning av de båda romanerna, i vilken temat frigörelse står som primär utgångspunkt. Likheterna återfinns inte enbart i romanernas innehåll, utan även i utomtextuella faktorer: författarna har recenserat varandras respektive romaner, omständigheter som motiverar uppsatsens andra delsyfte, att undersöka huruvida Karin Boye i sitt författande av Kris kan tänkas ha påverkats av Olssons roman. Med utgångspunkt i tre relevanta infallsvinklar påvisar jag likheterna mellan verken. Identitet framstår som ett nyckelord för förståelsen av de båda protagonisternas utveckling, och syntesen av deras utveckling mot en inre tyngdpunkt utesluter inte på något sätt behovet av det kollektiva, tvärtom utvecklar de båda ett visst mått av politisk medvetenhet. Båda verken präglas av en dualitet mellan olika motsättningar, och de inre slitningar som romanernas protagonister plågas av kan sammankopplas med psykoanalysens syn på själslivet. Protagonisternas utveckling karakteriseras även av ett rituellt mönster: död och återuppståndelse, och i verken återfinns en rad explicita hänvisningar till just återuppståndelse, som även skildras med liknande litterära begrepp. I den avslutande intertextuella analysen påvisas utifrån tidigare analysavsnitt och utifrån recensionerna att ett intertextuellt samband mellan de båda verken i hög grad är sannolikt.

No description available.

<p>During the later half of the 20th century standard form contracts began to be used more frequently in contract situations. This trend has been consistent and in today’s world numerous commercial parties employ such contracts in their business transactions. The reasons for the extended use of standard form contracts are the benefits that can be obtained for the parties such as time efficiency, effectiveness and price advantages. Standardised contracts often regulate certain issues of the contract for example the way of delivery, remedies and complaints. The definition of such contracts is corresponding in Sweden and England as contracts containing in advance standardised terms with an aim to be used similarly in contract situations with most clients or customers.</p><p>As the usage of standard form contracts increased, the number of unfair contract terms also enhanced. Therefore, the legislative powers in Sweden and England realised that the rules concerning the freedom of contract had to be restricted and governed. As a result, the legislative powers introduced an open control device through statutory control. This was done in Sweden in 1976 with the enforcement of Section 36 of the Contracts Act, and in England the year after when UCTA came into force. The statutory control in both Sweden and England makes it possible to appraise the fairness of exemption clauses. The statutory control is not identical in the two states. UCTA only concerns exclusion clauses and limitation clauses regarding contract terms and non-contractual notices. In Sweden, on the other hand, there is a general doctrine of unfairness and Section 36 of the Contracts Act can set aside all kinds of agreements.</p><p>The statutory control is complemented by indirect means of controlling the content of a contract through non statutory methods. The non statutory methods are concerned with the incorporation, interpretation and construction of clauses in a contract. To be valid and for a party to be able to rely on a term it must have been incorporated into the contract. The rules concerning the interpretation of standard form contracts and exclusion clauses are also of great importance. In both states the approach held is that the statutory control should be used preferably over the indirect control means, though the indirect means still has a prominent role in England through common law. Both England and Sweden agree on that the weaker party in a contract situation is in a greater need of protection by the rules of law in unfair contract situations. However unfairness can only arise if the superior party has wrongfully used the exclusion clause.</p><p>Our study shows the differences between Swedish and English contract law that can result in difficulties in the harmonisation process. These differences concern the test of reasonableness of exemption clauses, the doctrine of good faith, the legal effects and to what extent the indirect means of control should be applied. The Swedish test of reasonableness may include all relevant circumstances irrespective of the time of their occurrence, before or after the entry of the contract. The courts in England are limited to circumstances that have occurred before the closure of the contract. Section 36 of the Swedish Contracts Act includes a general rule of unfairness applicable to all kinds of contract terms. The rule of unfairness in the UCTA on the other hand, is only applicable to exemption clauses and indemnity clauses and there is no general rule of unfairness in English contract law. Instead the courts rely on indirect means of control, which therefore is of greater importance in English contract law. Finally, adjustments of unfair exemption clauses has a significant role in Swedish contract law, in contrast to English contract law where any adjustment is regarded as an intrusion of the freedom of contract.</p><p>To endorse one of the most important aims of the EU; a well working inner market, discussions commenced in 2001. The discussions concerned the harmonisation of the contract law within the union. The questions that arose were whether or not it was possible at all to form a European common contract law and if so, what the effects would be. An action plan was developed by the Commission and today both the EU Parliament and the Council are positive in regard to the continuing work with a reference frame. The Commission aims to pass the reference frame in 2009. Since the EU member states are diverse and have different legal systems a harmonisation of the contract law could cause difficulties. There are differences concerning legal traditions and legal values, hence the legal expertise in Europe is divided in the harmonisation question.</p><p>The following study aims to analyse the existing rules of law in Sweden and England representing two diverse legal systems existing in Europe; civil law and common law. The focus of this study regards the control of exclusion clauses in standard form contracts in both legal systems. The comparison will then be used to analyse the fundamental question if the harmonisation of contract law in the EU is feasible. Specific areas within the contract law have already been harmonised, which shows a possibility to coordinate common law and civil law. Directive 93/13/EEC on Unfair Terms in Consumer Contracts is one example of harmonised contract law in the EU and the principles in PECL is another example which shows that it is possible to coordinate common law and civil law. A harmonisation of the contract law will probably promote the commerce within the union and be the next step towards one of the most prominent goals of the EU, namely a well functioning common market. However, our study shows that the differences between national legislation and the differences between the legal traditions within the EU are not insignificant and a harmonisation will probably not be enforced without difficulties.</p>

Disputats, Göteborgs universitet, 2008. / Med litteraturhenvisninger.

De radikala högerpopulistiska partierna Sverigedemokraterna och Dansk Folkeparti har båda etablerat sig i Sveriges respektive Danmarks partisystem. Då studier av populism och populistiska aktörer i relation till journalistik ur ett medievetenskapligt perspektiv är få, är denna studies syfte att studera och diskutera relationen mellan journalistik och radikala högerpopulistiska aktörer. Detta för att möjliggöra en diskussion kring vilken roll denna relation spelar för mediers journalistiska innehåll och framställning av politiska aktörer. Uppsatsens utgångspunkt tar sitt uttryck från tidigare forskning av radikala högerpopulistiska aktörer och deras framväxt tillsammans med teoretiska ansatser om mediers politiska rapportering. Genom en kvantitativ innehållsanalys av ledande svenska och danska dags- och kvällstidningar kommer slutsatser kring beroenderelationen mellan medier och radikala högerpopulistiska aktörer dras och problematiseras.

Adopting a minimalist framework, the dissertation provides an analysis for the syntactic structure of comparatives, with special attention paid to the derivation of the subclause. The proposed account explains how the comparative subclause is connected to the matrix clause, how the subclause is formed in the syntax and what additional processes contribute to its final structure. In addition, it casts light upon these problems in cross-linguistic terms and provides a model that allows for synchronic and diachronic differences. This also enables one to give a more adequate explanation for the phenomena found in English comparatives since the properties of English structures can then be linked to general settings of the language and hence need no longer be considered as idiosyncratic features of the grammar of English. First, the dissertation provides a unified analysis of degree expressions, relating the structure of comparatives to that of other degrees. It is shown that gradable adjectives are located within a degree phrase (DegP), which in turn projects a quantifier phrase (QP) and that these two functional layers are always present, irrespectively of whether there is a phonologically visible element in these layers. Second, the dissertation presents a novel analysis of Comparative Deletion by reducing it to an overtness constraint holding on operators: in this way, it is reduced to morphological differences and cross-linguistic variation is not conditioned by way of postulating an arbitrary parameter. Cross-linguistic differences are ultimately dependent on whether a language has overt operators equipped with the relevant – [+compr] and [+rel] – features. Third, the dissertation provides an adequate explanation for the phenomenon of Attributive Comparative Deletion, as attested in English, by way of relating it to the regular mechanism of Comparative Deletion. I assume that Attributive Comparative Deletion is not a universal phenomenon, and its presence in English can be conditioned by independent, more general rules, while the absence of such restrictions leads to its absence in other languages. Fourth, the dissertation accounts for certain phenomena related to diachronic changes, examining how the changes in the status of comparative operators led to changes in whether Comparative Deletion is attested in a given language: I argue that only operators without a lexical XP can be grammaticalised. The underlying mechanisms underlying are essentially general economy principles and hence the processes are not language-specific or exceptional. Fifth, the dissertation accounts for optional ellipsis processes that play a crucial role in the derivation of typical comparative subclauses. These processes are not directly related to the structure of degree expressions and hence the elimination of the quantified expression from the subclause; nevertheless, they are shown to be in interaction with the mechanisms underlying Comparative Deletion or the absence thereof. / Unter Verwendung eines minimalistischen Frameworks wird in der Dissertation eine Analyse der syntaktischen Struktur von Vergleichskonstruktionen vorgestellt, mit besonderem Augenmerk auf der Ableitung des eingebetteten Satzes. Die vorgeschlagene Analyse erklärt, wie der komparative Nebensatz mit dem Matrixsatz verbunden ist, wie der Nebensatz in der Syntax gebildet wird und welche zusätzlichen Prozesse zu seiner endgültigen Struktur beitragen. Außerdem beleuchtet sie diese Probleme aus cross-linguistischer Sicht und bietet ein Modell, das synchrone und diachrone Unterschiede berücksichtigt. Dies ermöglicht auch eine adäquatere Erklärung der Phänomene in englischen Vergleichskonstruktionen, da die Eigenschaften der englischen Strukturen mit allgemeinen Eigenschaften der Sprache verknüpft werden und es daher nicht mehr nötig ist, sie als idiosynkratrische Merkmale der Grammatik der englischen Sprache zu behandeln. Die Dissertation bietet zum einen eine einheitliche Analyse von Gradphrasen, wobei die Struktur von Vergleichskonstruktionen mit der von anderen Graden verbunden wird. Es wird gezeigt, dass graduierbare Adjektive sich in einer Gradphrase (degree phrase, DegP) befinden, die wiederum eine Quantorenphrase (QP) projiziert, und dass diese beiden Funktionsschichten immer vorhanden sind, unabhängig davon, ob es ein phonologisch sichtbares Element in diesen Schichten gibt. Zweitens präsentiert die Dissertation eine neue Analyse von Komparativ-Tilgung (Comparative Deletion), die auf eine Overtheits-Bedingung für Operatoren reduziert wird: dadurch wird das Phänomen auf morphologische Unterschiede zurückgeführt, und cross-linguistische Variation wird nicht durch die Postulierung eines arbiträren Parameters begründet. Cross-linguistische Unterschiede sind letztlich davon abhängig, ob eine Sprache overte Operatoren mit den relevanten Merkmalen – [+ compr] und [+ rel] – hat. Drittens bietet die Dissertation eine adäquate Erklärung für das Phänomen der attributiven Komparativ-Tilgung (Attributive Comparative Deletion), wie man sie im Englischen findet, indem sie mit dem regulären Mechanismus der Komparativ-Tilgung in Zusammenhang gebracht wird. Ich gehe davon aus, dass attributive Komparativ-Tilgung kein universelles Phänomen ist, und dass ihr Vorhandensein im Englischen durch unabhängige, allgemeinere Regeln erfasst werden kann, während das Fehlen solcher Regeln zur Abwesenheit des Phänomens in anderen Sprachen führt. Viertens erklärt die Dissertation bestimmte Phänomene in Bezug auf diachronische Veränderungen und untersucht, wie Veränderungen im Status der Komparativoperatoren beeinflussen, ob Komparativ-Tilgung in einer Sprache vorkommt: Ich argumentiere dafür, dass nur Operatoren ohne eine lexikalische XP grammatikalisiert werden können. Die zugrunde liegenden Mechanismen sind im Wesentlichen allgemeine Prinzipien der Ökonomie, und damit sind die Prozesse nicht sprachspezifisch oder Ausnahmen. Fünftens bietet die Dissertation eine Erklärung für optionale Ellipsenprozesse, die bei der Ableitung von typischen komparativen Nebensätzen eine entscheidende Rolle spielen. Diese Prozesse haben nicht direkt mit der Struktur von Gradphrasen und somit mit der Entfernung der quantifizierten Phrase aus dem Nebensatz zu tun; aber es wird gezeigt, dass sie mit den Mechanismen, die Komparativ-Tilgung oder deren Abwesenheit zugrunde liegen, interagieren.

I beskrivningar av Sara Stridsbergs författarskap är Birgitta Trotzig ett återkommande namn. Främst har deras språkliga likheter betonats, men det finns även innehållsmässiga likheter då de båda återkommer till att skriva om moderskap. I denna uppsats jämförs hur moderskap gestaltas i Brigitta Trotzigs Dykungens dotter (1985) och Sara Stridsbergs Happy Sally (2004). Främst studeras hur moderskap gestaltas i de två romanerna, på vilka sätt moderskapet bryter från de rådande könsnormerna samt på vilka sätt verken problematiserar de moraliska aspekter och dilemman som kvinnlig frigörelse och moderskap innebär. Jämförelsen görs genom en tematisk komparativ läsning, och nyckelbegrepp i läsningen är genuskontrakt och norm. I båda romanerna ges en komplex bild av moderskapet, där både kvinnor som vill ha barn och kvinnor som väljer att göra abort skildras. I både Dykungens dotter och Happy Sally finns karaktärer som bryter mot den traditionella modersrollen och mot genuskontraktet, och för dessa normbrott krävs att de betalar ett pris. En skillnad i romanerna är huruvida karaktärerna bryter mot normen av fri vilja eller inte.