Introduktion: Den sexuella hälsan kan förslagsvis främjas genom insatser som en god sexualundervisning. Skolan har ingen kursplan i sexualitet, samtycke och relationer vilket medför att skillnaden på sexualundervisningen i Sveriges skolor är stor vilket kan leda till riskfyllda sexualvanor, fler partners och låg kondomanvändning.  Syfte: Det primära syftet var att undersöka hur människor upplever den nuvarande sexualundervisningen i skolan. Det sekundära syftet var att ta fram ett konkret material som skolväsendet kan använda för att kunna bedriva en hälsofrämjande sexualundervisning för barn och unga.  Metod: En empirisk kvantitativ enkätstudie har tillämpats. En webbenkät lades ut på Facebook och resultatet sammanställdes i Google Forms. Sen användes enkätresultaten från denna studie tillsammans med resultat från tidigare studier som har granskats i samband med detta arbete för att skriva en kursplan.  Resultat: 51 stycken respondenter svarade på enkäten i åldrarna 20-41 år. Majoriteten av respondenterna upplevde att de inte var nöjda med den sexualundervisning de har fått. Många av respondenterna uppgav att samtliga ämnen inte har tagits upp i tillräckligt stor utsträckning och många upplevde att de inte hade tillräckligt med information i dessa ämnen. 1 av 3 tyckte att undervisningen saknade en övergripande kvalitet och flertalet lyfte att de saknade en behörig lärare.  Diskussion: En möjlighet är att den sexuella hälsan blir lidande av den bristfälliga undervisningen i form av att eleverna missar tillfällen att utveckla empowerment och säkerhet kring sin sexualitet och identitet. En kursplan i sexualitet, samtycke och relationer kan skapa en ökad trygghet hos lärarna vilket också ökar kvaliteten på undervisningen. Ett förslag är att universitetsstudenter som har kompetens inom detta område, exempelvis studenter på sjuksköterskeprogrammet, hälsovägledarprogrammet eller andra studenter inom andra relevanta utbildningar, undervisar studenter på grundskolenivå som en del av båda parters utbildning. / Introduction: Sexual health can be promoted through initiatives such as good sex education. The school has no curriculum in sexuality, consent and relationships, which means that the difference in sexuality education in Sweden's schools is large, which can lead to risky sexual habits, more partners and low condom use. Purpose: The primary purpose was to investigate how people experience the current sex education in school. The secondary aim was to produce concrete material that the school system can use to be able to conduct health-promoting sex education for children and young people. Method: An empirical quantitative survey study has been applied. A web survey was posted on Facebook and the results were compiled in Google Forms. The survey results from this study were then used together with results from previous studies that have been reviewed in connection with this work to write a course plan. Results: 51 respondents answered the survey aged 20-41. The majority of respondents felt that they were not satisfied with the sex education they have received. Many of the respondents stated that all topics have not been covered to a sufficient extent and many felt that they did not have enough information on these topics. 1 in 3 thought that the teaching lacked an overall quality and the majority pointed out that they lacked a qualified teacher. Discussion: One possibility is that sexual health suffers from the inadequate teaching in the form of students missing opportunities to develop empowerment and security around their sexuality and identity. A curriculum in sexuality, consent and relationships can create increased security among teachers, which also increases the quality of teaching. One suggestion is that university students who have competence in this area, for example students in the nursing program, the health guidance program or other students in other relevant educations, teach students at primary school level as part of both parties' education.

Introduktion: Psykisk ohälsa är ett stort samhällsproblem som har vuxit sig större över de senaste åren. Medan ökande besvär relaterade till psykisk ohälsa observerats inom den svenska befolkningen, så rapporterar regionerna samtidigt en brist på professionella inom behandling av denna ohälsa. Ett alternativ till traditionella behandlingsmetoder för psykisk ohälsa är kamratstöd mellan individer med levd erfarenhet av psykisk ohälsa. De senaste åren har kamratstöd börjat användas mer och mer i online-baserade format och forum, och forskning inom detta område har visat på lovande resultat för ökat välmående för individer som deltar i online-baserat kamratstöd. Syfte: Syftet med den strukturerade litteraturstudien var att undersöka om hälsofrämjande effekter och riskfaktorer existerar inom digitalt kamratstöd för psykisk ohälsa på moderatorkontrollerade forum, samt vad dessa effekter är. Metod: Metoden som användes var en strukturerad litteraturstudie, med en induktiv tematisk analys av 11 kvalitetsgranskade tidskriftsartiklar. Resultat: Den tematiska analysen genererade tre teman: Känsla av samhörighet, ökad kunskap och ökad självförmåga och egenmakt. Resultatet visade att deltagandet i online-baserade moderatorkontrollerade forum för psykisk ohälsa resulterade i hälsofrämjande effekter. Dock visade resultatet också på att begränsningar och risker existerade i användandet av online-baserat kamratstöd. Slutsats: Resultatet belyste att användandet av online-baserat kamratstöd kan verka förebyggande genom att uppnå hälsofrämjande effekter, samt att detta kan vara en möjlighet för att minska vårdklyftorna för psykisk ohälsa genom att öka tillgången till online-baserat psykologiskt stöd. / Introduction: Declining mental health is an issue that has grown continuously bigger over the past few years. While symptoms of poor mental health continue to be observed within the Swedish population, the regions continue to report a decline in mental health professionals available to support treatment of individuals with psychological conditions. An alternative to traditional forms of treatment for mental health concerns is peer support between individuals with lived experience. The last few years peer support has increasingly moved into online based delivery methods, and research within this area is showing promising results of increased wellbeing for individuals engaging in this form of support.  Aim: The purpose of this study was to investigate whether health promoting effects and risk factors existed within online-based peer support forums with moderators present for individuals living with psychological conditions, and what these effects were. Method: The method used was a structured literature review, with an inductive thematic analysis of 11 peer-reviewed journal articles. Results: The thematic analysis produced three themes:Sense of belonging, increased knowledge, and increased self-efficacy and empowerment. The result indicated that participation in online-based moderator run forums for individuals with psychological conditions resulted in health promoting effects. The results however showed that limitations and risks also existed within the use of online-based peer support. Conclusion: The results indicated that the use of online-based peer support can work in a preventative way through achieving health promoting effects.It also indicates that this could be an opportunity to decrease the gap in accessibility of support and treatment for individuals living with psychological conditions through increasing the access to online-based psychological supports.

School-age educare centers have an important environment where children spend a significant part of their time. The school-age educare center’s preventive work is based on different methods and strategies.An integrated and inclusive pedagogy promotes positive relationships between children and increases their sense of belonging. Trained educators and staff play a key role in creating safe and supportive environments where children can develop their social skills.The purpose of the study is to take a closer look at how schools and their student health services include after-school centers in health promotion work. The method that we have chosen to collect data is based on a qualitative method, consisting of questionnaires with open-ended questions in which principals, student health services and school-age educare centers answered questions about inclusion, prevention,and skills development. We have based our work on previous research on prevention and health promotion in the school as a whole and the contribution of after-school centers to health promotion. The theory chosen for the study is KASAM and the intercultural perspective and its concepts are mental illness and mental health. Results and analyses show that principals and student health services have a holistic approach to health promotion and prevention work aimed at schools, but after-school centers educators are not included in this work on the same terms as schoolteachers. The research in our final discussion shows that everyone / all involved including the after-school centers needs to work together in the prevention of mental health problems. / Fritidshemmet utgör en viktig miljö där barn tillbringar en betydande del av sin tid.Fritidshemmets förebyggande arbete bygger på olika metoder och strategier.En integrerad och inkluderande pedagogik främjar positiva relationer mellan barn och ökar deras känsla av samhörighet. Utbildade pedagoger och personal spelar en nyckelroll genom att skapa trygga och stödjande miljöer där barn kan utveckla sina sociala färdigheter.Syftet med studien är att tittat närmare på hur skolan och skolornas elevhälsa inkluderar fritidshemmen i ett hälsofrämjande arbete. Metoden som vi har valt för att samla in data bygger på en kvalitativ metod, bestående av enkäter med öppna frågor som i ett led där rektorer, elevhälsan och fritidshemmen besvarat frågor som berör inkludering, förebyggande arbete samt kompetensutveckling. Vi har utgått från tidigare forskning inom förebyggande och hälsofrämjande insatser i skolan som helhet och vad tillförande avfritidshemmen ger i de hälsofrämjande arbetet. Teorin som har valts för studien är utifrån KASAM och det interkulturella perspektivet och dess begrepp är lärmiljö, psykisk ohälsa och psykisk hälsa. Resultat och analys visar att rektorer och elevhälsan har en helhetssyn men deras insatser riktas mot skolan och lärare, fritidshemmen inkluderas inte på lika villkor som pedagoger i skolan. Forskningen i vår slutdiskussion visar att alla behöver arbeta tillsammans i förebyggandet mot psykisk ohälsa.

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Personer med funktionsnedsättning är en utsatt grupp som lider av sämre hälsa än övriga befolkningen, vilket ser lika ut i hela världen. I Sverige är ohälsa hos personer med funktionsnedsättning vanligt förekommande och relaterad till ohälsosamma levnadsvanor, vilka till stor del skulle kunna förebyggas. Distriktssköterskan har ett ansvar att arbeta hälsofrämjande och är den profession som vanligen ansvarar för hälso- och sjukvården hos personer med funktionsnedsättning som bor på en LSS-bostad. Syftet med studien var att beskriva distriktssköterskans upplevelse av hälsofrämjande arbete hos personer som bor på LSS-bostäder. En kvalitativ studiedesign användes och data insamlades vid tio semistrukturerade intervjuer, vilka analyserades med kvalitativ innehållsanalys utifrån en induktiv ansats. Resultatet visar på att distriktssköterskor upplevde det hälsofrämjande arbetet som komplext med flera faktorer som påverkar. Många distriktssköterskor upplevde en frustration utifrån brist på resurser i form av tid och organisatoriskt stöd. Personalen som arbetar på LSS-bostäder var en viktig komponent i det hälsofrämjande arbetet och utgjorde en positiv faktor när kompetens och engagemang fanns, likväl som ett hinder när dessa delar saknades. Resultatet visade att bristande kommunikativa förmåga och insikt i hälsosamma levnadsvanor hos personer med funktionsnedsättning kunde utgöra ett hinder i det hälsofrämjande arbetet. Slutligen visar resultatet på brister i distriktssköterskans hälsofrämjande arbete hos personer som bor på LSS-bostäder. Det behövs fortsatt forskning i hur distriktssköterskan bör arbeta hälsofrämjande och hur distriktssköterskans förutsättningar för det arbetet kan förbättras. / People with disabilities are an exposed group who are less healthy and more likely to suffer from illness than the rest of the population. In Sweden, there is a clear connection between people with disabilities and an unhealthy lifestyle. This health issue can be prevented though. Community health nurses are responsible to promote health for people with disabilities living in residence with special services in group housing. The intention with this study is to learn about the experiences community health nurses have while promoting health in group housing. 10 semi-structured interviews have been conducted with community health nurses working with disabled persons living in group housing. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyze the interviews. The result showed that all nurses experienced their health promoting work as complexed and challenging. They were frustrated with the inadequacy of support from their employer and lack of time to set aside for these tasks. The nurses described the staff working in group housing as essential for health promoting. The staff was described as a positive influence when they were engaged and competent in their field but could also work as an obstacle when they lacked those capacities. The result showed that the nurses experienced the lack of communication abilities and understanding in a healthy lifestyle of the persons with disabilities as the biggest obstacle in their work. Lastly, the results show deficiency in the health promoting work at the residences with special services in group housing led by the nurses. Further research is needed, both regarding the way health promoting work can be conducted by the community health nurse and how the work conditions best could be adapted. / <p>Godkännandedatum: 2020-11-04</p>

The new phenomena of “school attacks” has emerged in Sweden since 2015. Between 2015 and today (2022), Sweden has been a subject of four “school attacks”, whereas three of these attacks have occurred within a period of seven months. In this thesis I aim to gain an in-depth insight about how “school attacks” are represented in the Swedish national strategy against violent extremism and further, to distinguish whether “school attacks” have been securitized in the national strategy. To study this, I will apply the securitization theory by Thierry Balzacq through the methodological framework of a WPR (What’s the problem represented to be?) discourse analysis on the material consisting of the Swedish national strategy against violent extremism from 2016. The findings suggest that there appears to be an undermining of right-wing extremism and exclusion of the loneactor of extremism in the strategy’s claims regarding what is the most prominent extremism-related threat to the State of Sweden and Swedish interests. Furthermore, I was able to distinguish that “school attacks” were not securitized in the Swedish national strategy against violent extremism.

Introduktion En bra arbetsmiljö är av stor vikt för ett hälsosamt arbetsliv. Många människor drabbas av arbetsrelaterad ohälsa som kunde varit möjlig att förebygga om den uppmärksammats i tid. Att utifrån både nationella och internationella styrdokument arbeta för en hållbart arbetsliv med en hälsofrämjande arbetsmiljö är av hög folkhälsovetenskaplig relevans. Syfte I populationen anställda på statligt finansierade arbetsplatser undersöka attityder till användandet av ett digitalt verktyg för regelbunden avstämning av arbetsrelaterad ohälsa samt utformning av sådant verktyg. Undersöka om attityderna skiljer åt mellan åldersgrupper samt mellan arbetstagare som upplever hög eller låg arbetsrelaterad utmattning. Metod En enkätstudie som inkluderade 33 respondenter genomfördes i april 2022 där frågorna var av både kvalitativ och kvantitativ karaktär. Fishers exakta test användes för numerisk data och kvalitativ innehållsanalys för fritextsvar. Resultat Majoriteten hade positiv attityd till användandet av ett digitalt verktyg för regelbunden avstämning av arbetsrelaterad ohälsa. Ingen skillnad i attityd kunde identifieras mellan åldersgrupper eller grupper med olika nivå på arbetsrelaterad utmattning. Det framkom att det behövs rimliga krav på de anställda i arbetslivet och att ett digitalt verktyg skulle kunna bidra till att fånga tidiga tecken på ohälsa och vara ett hjälpmedel för det hälsofrämjande arbetet. Fysiska möten ansågs dock fortfarande viktiga. Slutsats Studien visar att statsfinansierade anställda generellt har en positiv attityd till ett digitalt verktyg som regelbundet stämmer av arbetsrelaterad ohälsa. Studien beskriver också tankar kring för- och nackdelar gällande utformning av ett sådant digitalt verktyg. Ett av önskemålen var tätare uppföljningar av hälsa och arbetsmiljö med ett digitalt verktyg. / Introduction A healthy work environment is important for a sustainable working life. Many people suffer from ill health connected to working life that could have been prevented if it had been noticed in time. Based on both national and international governing documents, working for a sustainable working life with a health-promoting workenvironment, is very relevant from a public health perspective. Aim In the population employed at government-funded workplaces, investigate attitudes to the use of a digital tool for regular reconciliation of work-related ill health and the design of such a tool. Investigate whether attitudes differ between age groups and between workers who experience high or low work-related exhaustion. Methods A survey study including 33 respondents was conducted in april 2022 where the questions were of both a qualitative and quantitative nature. Fischer’s Exact test was used for numerical data and qualitative content analysis for free-text answers. Results The majority had a positive attitude towards the use of a digital tool for regular reconciliation of work-related ill health. No difference in attitude could be identified between age groups or groups with different levels of work-related exhaustion. It emerged that reasonable demands are needed on employees in working life and that a digital toolcould help to capture early signs of ill health and be a tool for health promotion work. Physical meetings, however, were still considered important. Conclusion This study shows that government-funded employees generally have apositive attitude towards a digital tool that regularly checks work-related ill health. This study also describes pros and cons regarding the design of such a digital tool. One of the  wishes was closer follow-ups of health and working environment with a digital tool.

Überstände von Cyanobakterien sind ein vielversprechendes Produkt zur Förderung des Pflanzenwachstums, da sie alle Vorteile der freigesetzten bioaktiven Verbindungen, wie z. B. Phytohormone, enthalten, ohne die Zwänge der mikrobiellen Inokulationen. Es ist jedoch nur wenig darüber bekannt, wie Cyanobakterien die Reaktion der Pflanzen auf molekularer Ebene modulieren könnten. In dieser Studie wurde das in Chile heimische Gras Polypogon australis als Modell verwendet, um die Wirkung von Überständen aus Kulturen von sieben autochthonen Bodencyanobakterien zu untersuchen. Von diesen zeigten die Überstände der Kulturen von Trichormus sp. die beste wachstumsfördernde Wirkung auf P. australis. Die ICP-MS-Analyse ergab, dass die Überstände von Trichormus sp. eine ähnliche Nährstoffzusammensetzung aufwiesen wie das für das Wachstum der Cyanobakterien verwendete Medium BG-11, mit Ausnahme der Elemente P und Mn, die in der späten exponentiellen Phase der Kulturen verarmt waren. Dann wurden Überstände von Trichormus sp.-Kulturen, die in der späten exponentiellen Phase gesammelt wurden und die eine Menge von 32,7 pmol trans-Zeatin pro mg Chl-a enthielten, zur Bewertung der Reaktion von P. australis auf transkriptioneller Ebene verwendet. Ein BG-11-Medium, das frei von P und Mn war, wurde als Kontrolle verwendet. Ganzes Pflanzengewebe wurde 3 Stunden nach der Behandlung entnommen und für eine RNA-seq-Analyse verwendet. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die Überstände von Trichormus sp. die Pflanzenreaktion hauptsächlich über die N- und Phytohormonwege modulierten, die in engem Zusammenhang mit dem C- und Lipidstoffwechsel stehen. Die behandelten Pflanzen wiesen 4 und 8 Tage nach der Anwendung größere Triebe auf als die Kontrollpflanzen, aber es wurden keine Unterschiede bei der Wurzellänge festgestellt. Dieser Phänotyp lässt sich durch die Induktion von Genen für die Gibberellin-Biosynthese in P. australis erklären, die durch andere Hormone wie Auxine, Brassinosteroide und Ethylen unterstützt wird. Andererseits wurde in mit P. australis behandelten Pflanzen eine induzierte systemische Resistenzreaktion beobachtet, die hauptsächlich durch einen Ethylen-Jasmonat-Crosstalk vermittelt wurde. Diese Arbeit unterstützt die Verwendung von Überständen als eine gute Option zur Förderung des Pflanzenwachstums.:Table of content Preliminary Page Resumen i Abstract ii Übersetzung iii DECLARATION ix 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Plant-growth promoting microorganisms 1 1.2. Soil cyanobacteria 2 1.3. Physiology of soil cyanobacteria 2 1.4. Cyanobacterial plant growth-promoting molecules 4 1.5. Plant response to bioactive compounds 6 1.6. Cyanobacterial supernatants 9 1.7. Polypogon australis as a plant study model 11 2. Methodology 13 2.1. Obtention of the cyanobacterial cultures 13 2.2. Supernatant collection from the cyanobacterial cultures 14 2.3. Cyanobacterial biomass quantification 15 2.3.1. Chlorophyll-a content 15 2.3.2. Biomass dry weight 15 2.3.3. Determination of the growth phases 15 2.4. Chemical characterization of the supernatants 16 2.4.1. Nitrate content 16 2.4.2. Total element content 16 2.4.3. Zeatin content 16 2.5. Preparation of the modified BG-11 medium (BG-11M medium) 17 2.6. Bioassays with cyanobacterial supernatants 18 2.6.1. Effect of supernatants of the 25 mL cultures on P. australis germination 18 2.6.2. Effect of supernatants of the 25 mL cultures on P. australis plants 18 2.6.3. Effect of supernatants of the 2,400 mL cultures on P. australis plants 19 2.7. Statistical analysis 19 2.8. Determination of transcriptional changes in P. australis. 20 2.8.1. Plant treatments and tissue collection 20 2.8.2. Total RNA extraction from plant tissue 20 2.8.3. DNA removal 20 2.8.4. mRNA sequencing, de novo assembly, and differential expression analysis 21 2.8.5. Contig annotation and functional classification 22 3. Results 24 3.1. Trichormus sp. cultures produce the highest biomass content 24 3.2. Trichormus sp. cultures have a low P content 25 3.3. Trichormus sp. supernatants have the best growth-promoting effect on the growth of P. australis 25 3.4. Supernatant nutrient content of Trichormus sp. cultures change through the growth phases 27 3.5. Supernatants used in the transcriptomic assay and BG-11M medium have a lower nutrient content than BG-11 medium 30 3.6. Trichormus sp. supernatants promote the growth of P. australis to a greater extent than the BG-11M medium 32 3.7. Trichormus sp. supernatants contain zeatin 33 3.8. Trichormus sp. supernatants modulated more P. australis genes than the BG-11M medium 34 3.9. Trichormus sp. supernatants regulate the gene expression of growth and defense responses in P. australis 37 4. Discussion 57 4.1. The plant-growth promoting effect of Thrichormus sp. supernatants 57 4.2. The role of P and Mn in the growth-promoting effect of Trichormus sp. supernatants 58 4.3. Modulation of P. australis N-metabolism by Trichormus sp. supernatants 59 4.4. P. australis nitrogen and carbon metabolism in response to Trichormus supernatants 63 4.5. P. australis phytohormone-metabolism modulated by Trichormus supernatants 64 4.6. The role of lipid metabolism in the response to Trichormus supernatants 67 4.7. P. australis defense response triggered by Trichormus supernatants 68 4.8. Phytohormone crosstalk and defense response in P. australis treated with Trichormus sp. supernatants 71 4.9. Perspectives and challenges for the biotechnological use of Trichormus sp. supernatants 73 5. Conclusion 76 Bibliographic references 77 Annexes 116 / Cyanobacterial supernatants are a promising plant growth-promoting product since they contain all the advantages of the released bioactive compounds, such as phytohormones, without the constraints of microbial inoculations. However, little is known about how cyanobacteria could modulate the plant response at a molecular level. In this research, the Chilean native grass, Polypogon australis, was used as a model for assaying the effect of supernatants obtained from cultures of seven autochthonous soil cyanobacteria. Of them, supernatants of Trichormus sp. cultures showed the best growth-promoting effects on P. australis. Analysis by ICP-MS showed that Trichormus sp. supernatants had a similar nutrient composition to the medium used for the cyanobacteria growth, BG-11, except for the elements P and Mn, which were depleted when the late exponential phase of the cultures was reached. Then, supernatants of Trichormus sp. cultures collected in the late exponential phase, which contained an amount of 32.7 pmol of trans-zeatin per mg of Chl-a, were employed for evaluating the P. australis response at a transcriptional level. A BG-11 medium free of P and Mn was utilized as a control. Whole plant tissue was collected 3 h-post treatment and used for an RNA-seq analysis. Results showed that Trichormus sp. supernatants modulated the plant response mainly by the N and phytohormones pathways, in close relation with C and lipid metabolism. Treated plants showed larger shoots than control plants 4 and 8 days after application, but no differences were observed in root length. This phenotype can be explained by the induction in P. australis of gibberellin biosynthesis genes, supported by other hormones such as auxins, brassinosteroids, and ethylene. On the other hand, an induced systemic resistance response was observed in P. australis-treated plants, mostly mediated by an ethylene-jasmonate crosstalk. This work supports the use of supernatants as a good plant growth-promoting option.:Table of content Preliminary Page Resumen i Abstract ii Übersetzung iii DECLARATION ix 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Plant-growth promoting microorganisms 1 1.2. Soil cyanobacteria 2 1.3. Physiology of soil cyanobacteria 2 1.4. Cyanobacterial plant growth-promoting molecules 4 1.5. Plant response to bioactive compounds 6 1.6. Cyanobacterial supernatants 9 1.7. Polypogon australis as a plant study model 11 2. Methodology 13 2.1. Obtention of the cyanobacterial cultures 13 2.2. Supernatant collection from the cyanobacterial cultures 14 2.3. Cyanobacterial biomass quantification 15 2.3.1. Chlorophyll-a content 15 2.3.2. Biomass dry weight 15 2.3.3. Determination of the growth phases 15 2.4. Chemical characterization of the supernatants 16 2.4.1. Nitrate content 16 2.4.2. Total element content 16 2.4.3. Zeatin content 16 2.5. Preparation of the modified BG-11 medium (BG-11M medium) 17 2.6. Bioassays with cyanobacterial supernatants 18 2.6.1. Effect of supernatants of the 25 mL cultures on P. australis germination 18 2.6.2. Effect of supernatants of the 25 mL cultures on P. australis plants 18 2.6.3. Effect of supernatants of the 2,400 mL cultures on P. australis plants 19 2.7. Statistical analysis 19 2.8. Determination of transcriptional changes in P. australis. 20 2.8.1. Plant treatments and tissue collection 20 2.8.2. Total RNA extraction from plant tissue 20 2.8.3. DNA removal 20 2.8.4. mRNA sequencing, de novo assembly, and differential expression analysis 21 2.8.5. Contig annotation and functional classification 22 3. Results 24 3.1. Trichormus sp. cultures produce the highest biomass content 24 3.2. Trichormus sp. cultures have a low P content 25 3.3. Trichormus sp. supernatants have the best growth-promoting effect on the growth of P. australis 25 3.4. Supernatant nutrient content of Trichormus sp. cultures change through the growth phases 27 3.5. Supernatants used in the transcriptomic assay and BG-11M medium have a lower nutrient content than BG-11 medium 30 3.6. Trichormus sp. supernatants promote the growth of P. australis to a greater extent than the BG-11M medium 32 3.7. Trichormus sp. supernatants contain zeatin 33 3.8. Trichormus sp. supernatants modulated more P. australis genes than the BG-11M medium 34 3.9. Trichormus sp. supernatants regulate the gene expression of growth and defense responses in P. australis 37 4. Discussion 57 4.1. The plant-growth promoting effect of Thrichormus sp. supernatants 57 4.2. The role of P and Mn in the growth-promoting effect of Trichormus sp. supernatants 58 4.3. Modulation of P. australis N-metabolism by Trichormus sp. supernatants 59 4.4. P. australis nitrogen and carbon metabolism in response to Trichormus supernatants 63 4.5. P. australis phytohormone-metabolism modulated by Trichormus supernatants 64 4.6. The role of lipid metabolism in the response to Trichormus supernatants 67 4.7. P. australis defense response triggered by Trichormus supernatants 68 4.8. Phytohormone crosstalk and defense response in P. australis treated with Trichormus sp. supernatants 71 4.9. Perspectives and challenges for the biotechnological use of Trichormus sp. supernatants 73 5. Conclusion 76 Bibliographic references 77 Annexes 116 / Los sobrenadantes de cianobacterias son prometedores productos promotores del crecimiento vegetal, pues contienen todas las ventajas de los compuestos bioactivos liberados, como fitohormonas, sin las limitaciones de las inoculaciones microbianas. Lamentablemente, poco se sabe sobre cómo las cianobacterias modularían la respuesta de las plantas a nivel molecular. En esta investigación, se utilizó la gramínea nativa chilena Polypogon australis como modelo para evaluar el efecto de sobrenadantes de cultivos de siete cianobacterias autóctonas de suelo. Los sobrenadantes de Trichormus sp. mostraron mejores efectos promotores del crecimiento de P. australis. Análisis mediante ICP-MS evidenciaron que estos sobrenadantes tenían un contenido nutricional similar al medio de crecimiento de las cianobacterias, BG-11, excepto por los elementos P y Mn, que se agotaron al alcanzarse la fase exponencial tardía de los cultivos. Para evaluar la respuesta de P. australis a nivel transcripcional, se emplearon sobrenadantes colectados en fase exponencial tardía de cultivos de Trichormus sp., que contenían una cantidad de 32,7 pmol de trans-zeatina por mg de Chl-a. Un medio BG-11 libre de P y Mn se utilizó como control. Tres horas después del tratamiento se recogió tejido de plantas completas y se le hizo un análisis de RNA-seq. Como resultado, los sobrenadantes principalmente modularon las vías de N y fitohormonas de la planta, en estrecha relación con los metabolismos de C y lípidos. Las plantas tratadas mostraron brotes más grandes que las plantas control, 4 y 8 días después de la aplicación, pero no se observaron diferencias en la longitud radicular. Este fenotipo puede explicarse por la inducción de biosíntesis de giberelina, apoyada por otras hormonas como auxinas, brasinoesteroides y etileno. Además, se observó una inducción de resistencia sistémica en las plantas tratadas, mediada por una interacción etileno-jasmonatos. Este trabajo corrobora el uso de sobrenadantes como una buena opción para promover el crecimiento de las plantas.:Table of content Preliminary Page Resumen i Abstract ii Übersetzung iii DECLARATION ix 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Plant-growth promoting microorganisms 1 1.2. Soil cyanobacteria 2 1.3. Physiology of soil cyanobacteria 2 1.4. Cyanobacterial plant growth-promoting molecules 4 1.5. Plant response to bioactive compounds 6 1.6. Cyanobacterial supernatants 9 1.7. Polypogon australis as a plant study model 11 2. Methodology 13 2.1. Obtention of the cyanobacterial cultures 13 2.2. Supernatant collection from the cyanobacterial cultures 14 2.3. Cyanobacterial biomass quantification 15 2.3.1. Chlorophyll-a content 15 2.3.2. Biomass dry weight 15 2.3.3. Determination of the growth phases 15 2.4. Chemical characterization of the supernatants 16 2.4.1. Nitrate content 16 2.4.2. Total element content 16 2.4.3. Zeatin content 16 2.5. Preparation of the modified BG-11 medium (BG-11M medium) 17 2.6. Bioassays with cyanobacterial supernatants 18 2.6.1. Effect of supernatants of the 25 mL cultures on P. australis germination 18 2.6.2. Effect of supernatants of the 25 mL cultures on P. australis plants 18 2.6.3. Effect of supernatants of the 2,400 mL cultures on P. australis plants 19 2.7. Statistical analysis 19 2.8. Determination of transcriptional changes in P. australis. 20 2.8.1. Plant treatments and tissue collection 20 2.8.2. Total RNA extraction from plant tissue 20 2.8.3. DNA removal 20 2.8.4. mRNA sequencing, de novo assembly, and differential expression analysis 21 2.8.5. Contig annotation and functional classification 22 3. Results 24 3.1. Trichormus sp. cultures produce the highest biomass content 24 3.2. Trichormus sp. cultures have a low P content 25 3.3. Trichormus sp. supernatants have the best growth-promoting effect on the growth of P. australis 25 3.4. Supernatant nutrient content of Trichormus sp. cultures change through the growth phases 27 3.5. Supernatants used in the transcriptomic assay and BG-11M medium have a lower nutrient content than BG-11 medium 30 3.6. Trichormus sp. supernatants promote the growth of P. australis to a greater extent than the BG-11M medium 32 3.7. Trichormus sp. supernatants contain zeatin 33 3.8. Trichormus sp. supernatants modulated more P. australis genes than the BG-11M medium 34 3.9. Trichormus sp. supernatants regulate the gene expression of growth and defense responses in P. australis 37 4. Discussion 57 4.1. The plant-growth promoting effect of Thrichormus sp. supernatants 57 4.2. The role of P and Mn in the growth-promoting effect of Trichormus sp. supernatants 58 4.3. Modulation of P. australis N-metabolism by Trichormus sp. supernatants 59 4.4. P. australis nitrogen and carbon metabolism in response to Trichormus supernatants 63 4.5. P. australis phytohormone-metabolism modulated by Trichormus supernatants 64 4.6. The role of lipid metabolism in the response to Trichormus supernatants 67 4.7. P. australis defense response triggered by Trichormus supernatants 68 4.8. Phytohormone crosstalk and defense response in P. australis treated with Trichormus sp. supernatants 71 4.9. Perspectives and challenges for the biotechnological use of Trichormus sp. supernatants 73 5. Conclusion 76 Bibliographic references 77 Annexes 116

This research focuses on the role of the school principal as instructional leader in primary schools in Thoyandou area, Limpopo Province. It was motivated by a marked decline in the fulfilment of the instructional leadership role of principals in certain schools in the Limpopo Province. A literature study was undertaken to determine the role of a instructional leader, approaches to this role as well as the relationship between the principal's instructional leadership role and staff development and staff appraisal respectively. A qualitative inquiry was conducted using a focus group and personal interviews with a small sample of participants selected by judgement sampling. The findings suggest that understanding of the instructional leadership is fragmented; principals often fail to develop staff adequately; and the Department of Education's new approach to staff and development appraisals is not adequately implemented in schools. Finally guidelines are provided to assist principals in fulfilling their role as effective instructional leaders. / Educational Studies / M.Ed. (Education Management)